Companion to the Bible
by E. P. Barrows · English · Gutenberg #17265 · 1,514,621 chars · public domain (US)
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Title: Companion to the Bible
Author: E. P. Barrows
Release date: December 9, 2005 [eBook #17265]
Most recently updated: December 13, 2020
Language: English
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/17265
Credits: Produced by John Hagerson, Juliet Sutherland, David King,
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COMPANION TO THE BIBLE ***
Produced by John Hagerson, Juliet Sutherland, David King,
and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
COMPANION
TO
THE BIBLE.
BY REV. E.P. BARROWS, D.D.,
PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE.
GENERAL PREFACE.
The design of the present work, as its title indicates, is to assist in
the study of God's word. The author has had special reference to
teachers of Bible classes and Sabbath-schools; ministers of the gospel
who wish to have ready at hand the results of biblical investigation in
a convenient and condensed form; and, in general, the large body of
intelligent laymen and women in our land who desire to pursue the study
of Scripture in a thorough and systematic way.
The First Part contains a concise view of the Evidences of Revealed
Religion. Here, since Christianity rests on a basis of historic facts,
special prominence has been given to the historic side of these
evidences; those, namely, which relate to the genuineness, integrity,
authenticity, and inspiration of the several books of the Bible. A brief
view is added of the evidences which are of an internal and experimental
character.
In the Introductions to the Old and New Testament which follow in the
Second and Third Parts, the general facts are first given; then an
account of the several divisions of each, with their office and mutual
relations, and such a notice of each particular book as will prepare the
reader to study it intelligently and profitably.
The Fourth Part is devoted to the Principles of Biblical Interpretation.
Here the plan is to consider the Scriptures, first, on the human side,
as addressed to men in human language and according to human modes of
thinking and speaking; then, on the divine side, as containing a true
revelation from God, and differing in this respect from all other
writings. To this twofold view the author attaches great importance. To
the human side belong the ordinary principles of interpretation, which
apply alike to all writings; to the divine side, the question of the
unity of revelation, and the interpretation of types and prophecies.
In each of the abovenamed divisions the author has endeavored to keep
prominently in view the unity of revelation and the inseparable
connection of all its parts. It is only when we thus contemplate it as a
glorious whole, having beginning, progress, and consummation, that we
can truly understand it. Most of the popular objections to the Old
Testament have their foundation in an isolated and fragmentary way of
viewing its facts and doctrines; and they can be fairly met only by
showing the relation which these hold to the entire plan of redemption.
The plan of the present work required brevity and condensation. The
constant endeavor has been to state the several facts and principles as
concisely as could be done consistently with a true presentation of them
in an intelligible form. It may be objected that some topics, those
particularly which relate to the Pentateuch, are handled in too cursory
a way. The author feels the difficulty; but to go into details on this
subject would require a volume. He has endeavored to do the best that
was consistent with the general plan of the work. The point of primary
importance to be maintained is the divine authority and inspiration of
the Pentateuch--the whole Pentateuch as it existed in our Saviour's day
and exists now. There are difficult questions connected with both its
form and the interpretation of certain parts of it in respect to which
devout believers may honestly differ. For the discussion of these the
reader must be referred to the works professedly devoted to the subject.
The present volume is complete in itself; yet it does not exhaust the
circle of topics immediately connected with the study of the Bible. It
is the author's purpose to add another volume on Biblical Geography and
Antiquities, with a brief survey of the historic relations of the
covenant people to the Gentile world.
CONTENTS.
PART I.
A CONCISE VIEW OF THE EVIDENCES OF REVEALED RELIGION.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 1. Christianity rests on a Basis of Historic Facts
inseparably connected from First to Last--2. This Basis to be maintained
against Unbelievers--3. General Plan of Inquiry--Christ's Advent the
Central Point--From this We look forward and backward to the
Beginning--4. Importance of viewing Revelation as a Whole--5.
Fragmentary Method of Objectors--Particular Order of the Parts in this
Investigation
CHAPTER II.
GENUINENESS OF THE GOSPEL NARRATIVES. 1. Terms defined--Necessity of
knowing the Authors of the Gospels--2. Remarks on their Origin--They
were not written immediately, but successively at Intervals--Earlier
Documents noticed by Luke--3. Manner of Quotation by the Early Church
Fathers--4. _External Evidences_ traced upward from the Close of the
Second Century--Testimony of Irenæus--Of Tertullian--Of Clement of
Alexandria--Letter of the Churches of Lyons and Vienne--5.
Comprehensiveness and Force of these Testimonies--Freedom of Judgment in
the Primitive Churches--This shown by the History of the Disputed
Books--6. Public Character and Use of the Gospels--7. Earlier
Testimonies--Justin Martyr--His Designation of the Gospels--They are Our
Canonical Gospels--Explanation of his Variations and Additions--His
References to the Gospel of John--8. Testimony of Papias--9. Epistle to
Diognetus--10. The Apostolic Fathers--Clement of Rome--Ignatius
Polycarp--The So-called Epistle of Barnabas--11. The Ancient Versions
and Muratorian Canon--Syriac Peshito--Old Latin--12. Testimony of the
Heretical Sects--Marcion--Valentinus--Tatian--13. Conclusiveness of the
above External Testimony--14. _Internal Evidences_--Relation of the
First Three Gospels to the Last--They differ in Time--The First Three
written before the Destruction of Jerusalem; the Fourth after that
Event--They differ in Character and Contents--Yet were all alike
received by the Churches--15. Relation of the First Three Gospels to
Each Other--They have Remarkable Agreements and Differences--These and
their General Reception explained by their Genuineness--16. The Gospels
contain no Trace of Later Events--17. Or Later Modes of Thought. 18.
From the Character of the Language
CHAPTER III.
UNCORRUPT PRESERVATION OF THE GOSPEL NARRATIVES. 1. What is meant by an
Uncorrupt Text--2. Ancient Materials for Writing--Palimpsests--Uncial
and Cursive Manuscripts--3. The Apostolic Autographs have perished, but
We have their Contents--This shown from the Agreement of
Manuscripts--From the Quotations of the Fathers--From Ancient
Versions--Character of the "Various Readings"--They do not affect the
Substance of the Gospel--4. The Ancient Versions made from a Pure
Text--This shown from the Public Reading of the Gospels from the
Beginning--From the Multiplication of Copies--From the High Value
attached to the Gospels--From the Want of Time for Essential
Corruptions--From the Absence of all Proof of such Corruptions--5. The
Above Remarks apply essentially to the other New Testament Books
CHAPTER IV.
AUTHENTICITY AND CREDIBILITY OF THE GOSPEL NARRATIVES. 1. General
Remarks--2. Their Authors Sincere and Truthful--3. Competent as Men--4.
And as Witnesses--5. Character of the Works which they record--
Supernatural Character of our Lord's Miracles--They were very
Numerous and Diversified, and performed openly--6. And in the Presence
of His Enemies--7. The Resurrection of Jesus--Its Vital Importance--8.
The Character of Jesus proves the Truth of the Record--Its Originality
and Symmetry--It unites Tranquillity with Fervor--Wisdom with Freedom
from Guile--Prudence with Boldness--Tenderness with Severity--Humility
with the Loftiest Claims--He is Heavenly-minded without Asceticism--His
Perfect Purity--His Virtues Imitable for All alike--Our Lord's Character
as a Teacher--His Freedom from the Errors of His Age and Nation--His
Religion One for All Men and Ages--This explained by its Divine
Origin--Our Lord's Manner of Teaching--His Divine Mission--Divinity of
His Person--Originality of its Manifestations--God His Father in a
Peculiar Sense--He is the Source of Light and Life--He has Inward
Dominion over the Soul--He dwells in Believers, and they in Him--The
Inference--His Power over the Human Heart--Supernatural Character of the
Gospel--A Word on Objections
CHAPTER V.
THE ACTS OF THE APOSTLES AND THE ACKNOWLEDGED EPISTLES. 1. These Books a
Natural Sequel to the Gospels--2. _The Acts of the Apostles_--External
Testimonies--3. Internal Evidence--4. Credibility--5. Date of
Composition--6. _The Acknowledged Epistles_--Distinction of Acknowledged
and Disputed Books--7. First Group of Pauline Epistles--Second Group, or
the Pastoral Epistles--Their Date--Their Peculiar Character--8. First
Epistles of Peter and First of John--9. Mutual Relation between the
Gospels and Later Books--10. Argument from Undesigned Coincidences
CHAPTER VI.
THE DISPUTED BOOKS. 1. The Question here simply concerning the Extent of
the Canon--2. The Primitive Age One of Free Inquiry--3. Its Diversity of
Judgment no Decisive Argument against a Given Book--4. The Caution of
the Early Churches gives Weight to their Judgment--This Judgment
Negative as well as Positive
CHAPTER VII.
INSPIRATION AND THE CANON. General Remarks--1. Rule of Judgment
determined--It is the Writer's Relation to Christ--2. Christ Himself
Infallible--3. _The Apostles_--They held the nearest Relation to
Him--Their Infallibility as Teachers shown--From the Necessity of the
Case--From Christ's Express Promises--From their Own Declarations--
Summary of the Argument in Respect to the Apostles--4. Inspiration of
the _Apostolic Men_--5. Argument from the Character of the Books of
the New Testament--6. The Inspiration of the Sacred Writers Plenary--
7. Principles on which the Canon is formed
CHAPTER VIII.
INSEPARABLE CONNECTION BETWEEN THE OLD AND THE NEW TESTAMENT. General
Remarks--1. Previous Revelations implied in Christ's Advent--2. In the
Character of the Jewish People--3. Proved from the New Testament--
Christ's Explicit Declarations--4. The New Testament based on the Facts
of the Old--The Fall of Man--The Abrahamic Covenant, which was
conditioned on Faith alone, and fulfilled in Christ--Christ the End of
the Mosaic Economy--In its Prophetical Order--In its Kingly Office--In
its Priestly Office--5. The New Testament Writers the Interpreters of
the Old
CHAPTER IX.
AUTHORSHIP OF THE PENTATEUCH. Meaning of the Term--1. It existed in its
Present Form from Ezra's Day--2. "The Law" ascribed to Moses in the New
Testament--How Much is included in this Term--3. Force of the New
Testament Testimony--4. The Law of Moses at the Restoration--5. Jewish
Tradition that Ezra settled the Canon of the Old Testament--He left the
Pentateuch essentially as he found it--References to the Law in the
Books of Kings and Chronicles--6. The Book of Deuteronomy--Its Mosaic
Authorship Certain--7. The Inference Certain that he wrote the Preceding
Laws--8. This corroborated by their Form--9. By References in the New
Testament--And the Old also--10. Relation of Deuteronomy to the Earlier
Precepts--In Respect to Time--And Design--Change in Moses' Personal
Relation to the People--Peculiarities of Deuteronomy explained from the
Above Considerations--Meaning of "the Words of this Law" in
Deuteronomy--11. Mosaic Authorship of Genesis shown--From Antecedent
Probability--From its Connection with the Following Books--Objections
considered--Supposed Marks of a Later Age--And of Different Authors--12.
Unity of the Pentateuch
CHAPTER X.
AUTHENTICITY AND CREDIBILITY OF THE PENTATEUCH. 1. Its Historic Truth
assumed in the New Testament--This shown by Examples--2. It was the
Foundation of the Whole Jewish Polity--And could not have been imposed
upon the People by Fraud--Contrast between Mohammed and Moses--3.
Scientific Difficulties connected with the Pentateuch--4. Alleged Moral
Difficulties--Exclusiveness of the Mosaic Economy--Its Restrictions on
Intercourse with Other Nations--5. Its Numerous Ordinances--The Mosaic
Laws required Spiritual Obedience--6. Objections from the Toleration of
Certain Usages--7. Extirpation of the Canaanites--8. The Mosaic Economy
a Blessing to the Whole World
CHAPTER XI.
REMAINING BOOKS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 1. General Remarks--2. The New
Testament assumes their Divine Authority--Historical Books--3. Books not
strictly Historical or Prophetical--4. Prophetical Books--Argument from
Prophecy for the Divine Origin of the Old Testament--5. Christ the
Fulfilment of Prophecy--In his Office as a Prophet--as a King--as a
Priest--6. The Jewish Institutions and History a Perpetual Adumbration
of Christ preparatory to His Advent--7. Remarks on the Canon of the Old
Testament--8. Principle of its Formation--9. Inspiration of the Old
Testament
CHAPTER XII.
EVIDENCES INTERNAL AND EXPERIMENTAL. 1. External Evidences Important,
but not Indispensable to True Faith--2. Internal Evidences--View which
the Bible gives of God's Character--3. Code of Morals in the Bible--It
is Spiritual, Reasonable, and Comprehensive--Obedience to It the Sum of
all Goodness--4. All Parts of the Bible in Harmony with Each Other--5.
Power of the Bible over the Conscience--6. Argument from Personal
Experience--7. From the Character of Jesus--8. From General
Experience--The Love of Jesus the Mightiest Principle of
Action--Persecution first winnows, then strengthens the Church--The
Church corrupted and weakened by Worldly Alliances--9. The Gospel gives
an Inward Victory over Sin--It purifies and elevates Society--10. Its
Self-purifying Power--11. The Argument summed up
* * * * *
PART II.
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT.
FIRST DIVISION--GENERAL INTRODUCTION.
CHAPTER XIII.
NAMES AND EXTERNAL FORM OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 1. Origin and Meaning of
the Word Bible--Jewish Designations of the Old Testament--2. Origin of
the Terms Old and New Testament--Earlier Latin Term--2. The
Unity--Scripture has its Ground in Divine Inspiration--Its Great
Diversity in Respect to Human Composition--4. Classification and
Arrangement of the Old Testament Books--Classification of the Hebrew: of
the Greek Version of the Seventy; of the Latin Vulgate--No One of these
follows entirely the Order of Time--5. Original Mode of Writing called
Continuous--6. Ancient Sections--Open and Closed; Larger Sections called
Parshiyoth and Haphtaroth--7. Chapters and Verses--Caution in Respect to
our Modern Chapters
CHAPTER XIV.
THE ORIGINAL TEXT AND ITS HISTORY. 1. Chaldee Passages in the Hebrew
Scriptures--Divisions of the Hebrew and Cognate Languages--2. The
Assyrian or Square Character not Primitive--Jewish Tradition respecting
its Origin--3. The Hebrew Alphabet and its Character--4. Change in the
Language of the Hebrew Nation--5. Introduction of the Vowel-Points and
Accents--The Question of their Antiquity--6. Jewish Rules for the
Guidance of Copyists--Their Deep Reverence for the Sacred Text--Its
Uncorrupt Transmission to Us--7. Age and Character of Hebrew
Manuscripts--8. Form of Hebrew Manuscripts--the Public in Rolls, the
Private in the Book Form, Poetical Passages, Columns, Pen and Ink
Accompaniments--9. The Samaritan Pentateuch
CHAPTER XV.
FORMATION AND HISTORY OF THE HEBREW CANON. I. Meaning of the Word
"Canon"--Gradual Formation of the Hebrew Canon--Its Main Divisions--1.
_The Pentateuch_--2. General Remark on its Hebrew Name--3. The
Pentateuch forms the Nucleus of the Old Testament Canon--It was given by
Divine Authority, committed to the Charge of the Priests, kept by the
Side of the Ark, and to be publicly read at Stated Times--II. _The
Historical Books_--4. The Authors and Exact Date of Many of them
Unknown--Important Historical Documents were deposited in the
Sanctuary--5. The Authors of the Books of Joshua and Judges made Use of
such Documents--6. The Author of the Books of Samuel also--7. Original
Sources for the Books of Kings and Chronicles--8. These Two Works refer
not to Each Other, but to a Larger Collection of Original Documents--9.
Character of these Documents--They were written, in Part at Least, by
Prophets, and they all come to us with the Stamp of Prophetic
Authority.--10. The Books of Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther--III. _The
Prophetical Books_--11. The Books enumerated--Paucity of Prophets before
Samuel--Schools of the Prophets established by him--The Prophets a
Distinct Order of Men in the Theocracy from his Day onward--12. The Era
of Written Prophecy--IV. _The Poetical Books_--13. Their General
Character--The Book of Job--14. The Book of Psalms--15. Proverbs,
Ecclesiastes, and Canticles--_Completion of the Canon_--16. Preservation
of the Sacred Books to the Time of Ezra--The Law; the Prophetical Books;
the Psalms and other Canonical Writings--17. The Completion of the Canon
ascribed by the Jews to Ezra and his Coadjutors--This Tradition True for
Substance.--No Psalms written in the Maccabean Age--18. Contents of the
Hebrew Canon--as given by Jesus the Son of Sirach, by Josephus, by
Origen and Eusebius, by Jerome--19. The Apocryphal Books
CHAPTER XVI.
ANCIENT VERSIONS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. I. _The Greek Version called the
Septuagint_--1. Its Antiquity; its Great Influence on the Language of
the New Testament--2. Jewish Account of its Origin--3. Judgment of
Biblical Scholars on this Account--4. Time occupied in the Completion of
the Work--5. Inequalities of this Version--Its Importance to the
Biblical Student--6. Its Close Connection with the New Testament--
Quotations from it by New Testament Writers--Their Manner and Spirit--
7. Hebrew Text from which this Version was made--II. _Other Greek
Versions_--8. The Septuagint originally in High Esteem among the
Jews--Change in their Feelings in Regard to it, and Rise of New
Versions--9. Aquila's Version--10. Theodotion--11. Symniachus--12.
Origen's Labors on the Text of the Septuagint--the Tetrapla and
Hexapla--III. _The Chaldee Targums_--13. General Remarks on these--14.
The Targum of Onkelos--Its General Fidelity and Excellence--Its
Peculiarities--Jewish Tradition respecting Onkelos--15. The Targum of
Jonathan Ben Uzziel--16. Of Pseudo-Jonathan and Jerusalem--17. Other
Targums--The Samaritan Version of the Samaritan Pentateuch--IV. 18. _The
Syriac Peshito_--Its Age and Character
CHAPTER XVII.
CRITICISM OF THE SACRED TEXT. 1. The Object to ascertain its Primitive
Form--2. Means at Our Disposal--Ancient Hebrew Manuscripts--Remarks on
their Quality and Age--3. Ancient Versions--4. Primary Printed
Editions--5. Parallel Passages--6. Quotations from the Old Testament in
the New--7. Quotations in the Talmud and by Rabbinical Writers--8.
Critical Conjecture
SECOND DIVISION--PARTICULAR INTRODUCTION.
CHAPTER XVIII.
THE BOOKS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT AS A WHOLE. 1. Province of Particular
Introduction--The Necessity of Understanding the Unity of Divine
Revelation--2. Relation of the Old Testament as a Whole to the System of
Revelation--It is a Preparatory, Introductory to a Final Revelation, of
which the Gospel everywhere avails itself--the Unity of God; Vicarious
Sacrifice; General Principles; Well-developed State of Civilization--
Connection of the Hebrews with the Great World Powers--Their Dispersion
through the Nations at our Lord's Advent--Relation of the Gospel to
Civilization--3. A Knowledge of the Preparatory Character of the Old
Testament Revelations enables us to judge correctly concerning them--
Severity of the Mosaic Laws; Their Burdensome Multiplicity; Objection
from their Exclusive Character answered--4. Office of each Division of
the Old Testament Revelations--the Pentateuch; the Historical Books;
the Prophetical Books--Character and Officers of the Hebrew Prophets--
Era of Written Prophecy--The Poetical Books--5. Each Particular Book
has its Office--6. The Old Testament was a Revelation for the Men of
its Own Age, as well as for those of Future Ages--the Promise made to
Abraham; the Deliverance from Egypt; the Mosaic Law; the Words of the
Prophets; the Psalms of David: the Wisdom of Solomon--7. Value of the
Old Testament Revelations to us--the System of Divine Revelation can
be understood only as a Whole; Constant Reference of the New Testament
to the Old; the Old Testament a Record of God's Dealings with Men;
the Principles embodied in the Theocracy Eternal; the Manifold Wisdom
of God seen only when the Whole System of Revelation is studied
CHAPTER XIX.
THE PENTATEUCH. I. Its Unity--Its Fivefold Division--1. _Genesis_--2.
Its Hebrew Name--Its Greek Name--3. Its Office--It is the Introductory
Book of the Pentateuch--Its Connection with the Following Books--4.
Divisions of the Book of Genesis--First Part and its Contents; Second
Part and its Contents--5. Its Mosaic Authorship--Supposed Traces of a
Later Hand--6. Difficulties connected with the Pentateuch--Scientific
Difficulties: the Six Days of Creation; the Age of the Antediluvian
Patriarchs; the Unity of the Human Race; the Deluge--Historical
Difficulties: the Two Accounts of the Creation; Cain's Wife--
Chronological Difficulties: Discrepancies between the Masoretic
Hebrew, the Samaritan Hebrew, and the Septuagint, in Respect to (1) the
Antediluvian Genealogy; (2) the Genealogy from Noah to Abraham--Remarks
on these Discrepancies--II. _Exodus_--7. Hebrew Name of this Book--Its
Unity--Its Two Chief Divisions--Contents of the First Division; of the
Second Division--8. Time of the Sojourn in Egypt--Sojourn in the
Wilderness--III. _Leviticus_--9. Its Character and Contents--10. The
Priestly Office and Sacrifices the Central Part of the Mosaic Law--IV.
_Numbers_--11. Office and Contents of this Book--The Three Epochs of its
History: the Departure from Sinai, the Rebellion of the People upon the
Report of the Twelve Spies, the Second Arrival of Israel at Kadesh with
the Events that followed--V. _Deuteronomy_--12. Its Peculiar Character,
Divisions, and Contents--13. It brings the Whole Pentateuch to a
Suitable Close
CHAPTER XX.
THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 1 and 2. Their Office to Unfold the History of
God's Dealings with the Covenant People--General Remarks on the
Character of this History--I. _Joshua_--3. Contents of this Book. Its
Immediate Connection with the Pentateuch--Its Two Divisions with their
Contents--4. Its Authorship--5. Its Authenticity and Credibility--The
Miracle of the Arrest of the Sun and Moon in their Course--II. _Judges
and Ruth_--6. Name of this Book--Office of the Judges whose History it
records--Condition of the Hebrew Nation during the Administration of the
Judges--Office of this Book in the General Plan of Redemption--7.
Arrangement of its Materials--its Twofold Introduction; the Body of its
History; its Two Appendixes--8. Its Date and Authorship--9. Uncertainty
of its Chronology--10. The Book of Ruth. Its Place in the History of
Redemption--III. _The Books of Samuel_--11. The Two Books of Samuel
originally One Work--Their Name--12. Their Office in the History of
Redemption--Eventful Character of the Period whose History they
record--Change to the Kingly Form of Government--God's Design in
this--The Kingly Office Typical of Christ--13. Contents of the Books of
Samuel--Introductory Division; Second Division; Third Division--14.
Authorship and Date of their Composition--IV. _The Books of Kings_--15.
They Originally constituted a Single Book--Their Names and Office--Their
Manner of Execution--Their Main Divisions--16. The First Period--17. The
Second Period--18. The Third Period--19. Chronology of the Books of
Kings. Their Date and Authorship--V. _The Books of Chronicles_--20. They
originally constituted One Work--Their Various Names--They constitute an
Independent Work--Their Office different from that of the Books of
Kings--Peculiarities which distinguish them from these Books--Particular
Attention to the Matter of Genealogy; Fullness of Detail in Respect to
the Temple Service; Omission of the History of the Kingdom of Israel;
other Omissions--21. Position of the Chronicles in the Hebrew
Canon--Their Authorship and Date--Their Relation to the Books of
Kings--22. Difficulties connected with these Books--VI. _Ezra and
Nehemiah_--23. General Remarks on these Books--Change in the Relation of
the Hebrews to the Gentile Nations--Gradual Withdrawal of Supernatural
Manifestations--24. While the Theocracy went steadily forward to the
Accomplishment of its End--The Jews reclaimed from Idolatry in
Connection with the Captivity--Establishment of the Synagogue Service
and its Great Influence--25. The Book of Ezra--Its Authorship--Parts
written in Chaldee--Persian Monarchs mentioned by Ezra and Nehemiah--26.
The Book of Nehemiah--Its Contents and Divisions--First Division; Second
Division; Third Division--27. Authorship and Date of the Book--VII.
_Esther_--28. Contents of this Book--Feast of Purim--29. The Ahasuerus
of this Book--Remarks on its History
CHAPTER XXI.
THE POETICAL BOOKS (INCLUDING ALSO ECCLESIASTES AND CANTICLES). 1. Books
reckoned as Poetical by the Hebrews--Hebrew System of Accentuation--A.
_Characteristics of Hebrew Poetry_--_Its Spirit_--Harmony with the
Spirit of the Theocracy; Vivid Consciousness of God's Presence;
Originality; Freshness and Simplicity of Thought; Variety--Job and
Isaiah. David, Solomon; Diversity of Themes; Oriental Imagery;
Theocratic Imagery--_Form of Hebrew Poetry_--3. Its Rhythm that of
Clauses--Antithetic Parallelism; Synonymous Parallelism; Synthetic
Parallelism--Combinations of the above Forms--Freedom of Hebrew
Poetry--Peculiarities of Diction--_Office of Hebrew Poetry_--4. The
Celebration of God's Interpositions in Behalf of the Covenant People;
Song for the Sanctuary Service; Didactic Poetry; Prophetic Poetry--B.
_The Several Poetical Books_--I. _Job_--1. Survey of its Plan--6. Its
Design to Show the Nature of God's Providential Government over Men--7.
Age to which Job belonged--Age and Authorship of the Book--8. Its
Historic Character--II. _The Book of Psalms_--9. Its Office--Authors of
the Psalms--Date of their Composition--10. External Division of the
Psalms into five Books--First Book; Second Book; Third Book; Fourth
Book; Fifth Book--Subscription appended to the Second Book--Principle of
Arrangement--Attempted Classification of the Psalms--Frequent Quotation
of the Psalms in the New Testament--11. Titles of the Psalms--the
Dedicatory Title; Titles relating to the Character of the Composition to
the Musical Instruments, or the Mode of Musical Performance--These
Titles very Ancient, but not in all Cases Original--III. _The Proverbs
of Solomon_--12. Place of this Book in the System of Divine
Revelation--13. Its Outward Form--First Part; Second Part; Third Part;
Fourth Part--14. Arrangement of the Book in its Present Form--IV.
_Ecclesiastes_--15. Authorship of this Book and its View of Life--16.
Summary of its Contents--V. _The Song of Solomon_--17. Meaning of the
Title. Ancient Jewish and Christian View of this Song--18. It is not a
Drama, but a Series of Descripture Pictures--Its Great Theme--Caution in
Respect to the Spiritual Interpretation of it
CHAPTER XXII.
The Greater Prophets. 1. General Remarks on the Prophetical Writings--2.
Different Offices of the Prophets under the Theocracy--Their Office as
Reprovers--3. As Expounders of the Mosaic Law in its Spirituality--4.
And of its End, which was Salvation through the Future Redeemer--They
wrote in the Decline of the Theocracy--Their Promises fulfilled only in
Christ--I. _Isaiah_--5. He is the First in Order, but not the Earliest
of the Prophets--His Private History almost wholly Unknown--Jewish
Tradition Concerning him--Period of his Prophetic Activity--6. Two Great
Divisions of his Prophecies--Plans for Classifying the Contents of the
First Part--Analysis of these Contents--General Character of the Second
Part, and View of its Contents--7. Objections to the Genuineness of the
Last Part of Isaiah and Certain Other Parts--General Principle on which
these Objections are to be met--Previous Preparation for the Revelations
contained in this Part--True Significance of the Promises which it
contains--Form of these Promises--Mention of Cyrus by Name--Objection
from the Character of the Style considered--8. Direct Arguments for the
Genuineness of this Part--External Testimony; Internal Evidences--9.
Genuineness of the Disputed Passages of the First Part--II.
_Jeremiah_--10. Contrast between Isaiah and Jeremiah in Personal
Character and Circumstances--Our Full Knowledge of his Outward Personal
History and Inward Conflicts--11. His Priestly Descent--His Native
Place--Period of his Prophetic Activity--Degeneracy of the
Age--Persecutions to which his Fidelity subjected him--He is more
occupied than Isaiah with the Present--His Mission is emphatically to
unfold the Connection between National Profligacy and National Ruin; yet
he sometimes describes the Glory of the Latter Days--12. The
Chronological Order not always followed in his Prophecies--General
Divisions of them--First Division; Second Division; Appendix--Attempts
to disprove the Genuineness of Certain Parts of Jeremiah--_The Book of
Lamentations_--13. Its Hebrew Name--Its Authorship and the Time of its
Composition--14. Structure of its Poetry--III. _Ezekiel_--15. His
Priestly Descent and Residence--Notices of his Personal History--Period
of his Prophetic Activity--16. Peculiarities of his Style--17. His
Allegoric and Symbolic Representations--General Remarks on the Nature of
Allegories and Symbols--18. The Two Divisions of the Book--Contents of
the First Part; of the Second Part--Prophecies against Foreign
Nations--Promises relating to the Glory of the Latter Days--Ezekiel's
Vision of a New Jerusalem with its Temple--Meaning of this Vision and
Principles according to which it is to be interpreted--IV. _Daniel_--19.
Its Place in the Hebrew Canon--Notices of Daniel's Personal History--20.
Arrangement and Contents of the Book--First Series of Prophecies; Second
Series--Intimate Connection between the Book of Daniel and the
Apocalypse--21. Assaults made upon the Book of Daniel in Respect to its
Genuineness and Credibility--Grounds on which it is received as a Part
of the Sacred Canon--Its Unity; Uniform Tradition of the Jews and its
Reliability; Testimony of Josephus; of the Saviour; Language and Style;
Intimate Acquaintance with the Historical Relations and Manners and
Customs of the Age--22. Insufficiency of the Various Objections urged
against the Book--Chronological and Historical Difficulties;
Difficulties connected with the Identification of Belshazzar and Darius
the Mede; Silence of Jesus the Son of Sirach respecting Daniel; Alleged
Linguistic Difficulties; Commendations bestowed upon Daniel--The Real
Objection to the Book on the Part of its Opponents lies in the
Supernatural Character of the Events which it records--Remarks on this
Objection
CHAPTER XXIII.
THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS--1. Jewish Arrangement of these Books--Their
Order in the Masoretic Text and in the Alexandrine Version--2. General
Remarks on their Character I. _Hosea_--3. Period of his Prophecying and
its Character--4. Peculiarly of his Style--Contents of the Book II.
_Joel_--5. Place and Date of his Prophecies--6. Character and Contents
of his Book--III. _Amos_--7. Date of his Prophecies--Notices of his
Person--He was a Jew, not trained in any Prophetical School, and sent to
prophesy against Israel--Character and Contents of his Writings--IV.
_Obadiah_--8. Date and Contents of his Prophecy--V. _Jonah_--9. His
Age--10. Remarks on the History of the Book--11. Authorship and Historic
Truth of the Book--VI. _Micah_--12. His Residence and the Time of his
Prophetic Activity--His Prophecies directed against both Israel and
Judah--13. Divisions of the Book with the Contents of Each--Passages
Common to Micah and Isaiah--General Agreement between the Two
Prophets--VII. _Nahum_--14. His Prophecy directed against Nineveh--Its
Probable Date--15. Contents of the Book--VIII. _Habakkuk_--16. Date of
the Book and its Contents--Remarks on the Ode contained in the Third
Chapter--IX. _Zephaniah_--17. Date and Contents of his Book--X.
_Haggai_--18. Date and Scope of the Book--19. Its Different
Messages--XI. _Zechariah_--20. His Priestly Descent--Date of his
Prophecies--21. The Three Divisions of the Book--First Division; Second
Division; Third Division--22. Remarks on the Character of Zechariah's
Prophecies--XII. _Malachi_--23. Name of this Prophet--Date of his
Prophecies, and Condition of the Jewish People--24 Contents of the Book
APPENDIX TO PART II.
THE APOCRYPHAL BOOKS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT--1. The Term _Apocrypha_ and
its Origin--2. Remarks on the Date of the Apocryphal Books--Their
Reception by the Alexandrine Jews--3. History of these Books in the
Christian Church--4. Their Uses--I. _The Two Books of Esdras_--5. Name
of this Book--Its Contents--Its Date--6. The Second Book of Esdras found
only in Versions--Remarks on these Versions--7. Its Contents and
Date--II. _Tobit_--8. Accounts of the Contents of this Book--9. Various
Texts in which this Book is Extant--Its General Scope--III.
_Judith_--10. Contents of the Book--11. Remarks on its Character, Date,
and Design--IV. _Additions to the Book of Esther_--12. Account of
these--V. _The Wisdom of Solomon_--13. Its Divisions and their
Contents--14. Authorship of the Book--Its Merits and Defects--VI.
_Ecclesiasticus_--15. Its Titles and Contents--16. Date of the Book and
of its Translation--VII. _Baruch and the Epistle of Jeremiah_--17.
Character and Contents of the Book of Baruch--18. Second, or Syriac Book
of Baruch--19. So-called Epistle of Jeremiah--VIII. _Additions to the
Book of Daniel_--20. Enumeration of these--Their Authorship and
Date--IX. _The Prayer of Manasses_--21. Remarks on this Composition--X.
_The Books of the Maccabees_--22. Number of these Books--Remarks on
their Historic Order--Origin of the Name Maccabee--23. First Book--Its
Genuineness and Credibility--Its Authorship and Date--Original
Language--24. Second Book--Its Character and Contents--25. Third
Book--Its Contents and Character--Fourth Book--Its Stoical
Character--Its Contents--Fifth Book--Its Original Language and Contents
* * * * *
PART III.
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE NEW TESTAMENT.
FIRST DIVISION--GENERAL INTRODUCTION.
CHAPTER XXIV.
Language of the New Testament--1. God's Providence as seen in the
Languages of the Old and New Testaments--Fitness of the Hebrew for its
Office in History, Poetry, and Prophecy--2. Adaptation of the Greek to
the Wants of the New Testament Writers--3. Providential Preparation for
a Change in the Language of the Inspired Writings--Cessation of the
Hebrew as the Vernacular of the Jews, and Withdrawal of the Spirit of
Prophecy Contemporaneous--4. Introduction of the Greek Language into
Asia and Egypt--Its Use among the Jews, especially in Egypt--Its General
Use in our Lord's Day--5. Character of the New Testament Greek--Its
Basis the Common Hellenic Dialect, with an Hebraic Coloring received
from the Septuagint, and an Aramaic Tinge also--The Writers of the New
Testament Jews using the Language of Greece for the Expression of
Christian Ideas--Technical Terms in the New Testament--6. Adaptation of
the New Testament Greek to its Office
CHAPTER XXV.
External Form of the New Testament--1. The Three Main Divisions of the
New Testament Writings: Historical, Epistolary, Prophetical--2. Natural
Order of these Divisions--3. Subdivisions--In the Historic Part--In the
Epistolary Part--Diversity of Arrangement in Manuscripts--4. Arrangement
of the New Testament Writings not Chronological--Importance of Knowing
this--5. Continuous Writing of the Ancient Uncial Manuscripts--
Stichometrical Mode of Writing--This led gradually to the Present
System of Interpunction Cursive Manuscripts--7. Ancient Divisions in
the Contents of the Sacred Text--Ammonian Sections and Eusebian Canons--
8. Divisions called Titles--9. Divisions of the Other New Testament
Books--10. Chapters and Verses--Church Lessons--11. Remarks on the above
Divisions--Paragraph Bibles--12. Titles and Subscriptions
CHAPTER XXVI.
THE NEW TESTAMENT TEXT AND ITS HISTORY--I. _The Manuscript Text_--1 and
2. General Remarks--3. Origin of Various Readings and their
Classification--Substitutions, Insertions, Omissions--Arising from
Inadvertence, or Unskilful Criticism--Wilful Falsifications cannot be
imputed to the Copyists--4. Materials for Textual Criticism--General
Results--5. Notice of some Manuscripts--The Vatican, Sinai, Alexandrine,
Ephraem, Palimpsest, Dublin Palimpsest, Beza or Cambridge (Bilingual),
Purple. Cursive Manuscripts--II. _The Printed Text_--6. Primary Editions
and their Sources--Complutensian Polyglott, Erasmian, Stephens', Beza's,
Elzevir Editions--7. Remarks on the Received Text--III. _Principles of
Textual Criticism_--8. Its End--Sources of Evidence--Greek
Manuscripts--Their varying Value--9. Ancient Versions and their
Value--10. Citations of the Church Fathers--11. Canons of Criticism
CHAPTER XXVII.
FORMATION AND HISTORY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT CANON--1. General Remarks--2.
Different Periods to be noticed--3. Apostolic Age--4. Age of the
Apostolic Fathers--Remarks on their Quotations--5. Age of
Transition--Events of this Age which awakened the Christian Church to a
Full Consciousness of the Divine Authority of the Apostolic
Writings--Execution of Versions--6. Age of the Early Church
Fathers--They recognized a Canon, though not yet Complete--Canon of the
Syriac Peshito, Muratorian Canon--Canon of the Councils of Laodicea and
Carthage--7. Closing Remarks
CHAPTER XXVIII.
ANCIENT VERSIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT--I. _Latin Versions_--1. Interest
attaching to these Versions--2. The Ante-Hieronymian or Old Latin
Version--3. Its Canon--Remarks on its Text--Manuscripts containing
it--4. Jerome's Revision of the Old Latin Version--5. Jerome's New
Version of the Old Testament--Books left untranslated--The Vulgate and
its Diversified Character--Remarks on the History of the Vulgate--II.
_Syriac Versions_--6. The Peshito--It comprises the Old and New
Testaments--Its Date--Its Name--7. Character of the Peshito--The
Curetonian Syriac--Its Relation to the Peshito--Its high Critical
Value--8. The Philoxenian Syriac--Its extremely Literal
Character--Hexaplar Syriac--Remarks on these Versions--Jerusalem Syriac
Lectionary--III. _Egyptian and Ethiopic Versions_--Memphitic Version,
Thebaic, Bashmuric--10. Ethiopic Version--IV. _Gothic and other
Versions_--11. Gothic Version of Ulphilas--12. Palimpsest Manuscripts of
this Version--13. Ancient Armenian Version
SECOND DIVISION--PARTICULAR INTRODUCTION.
CHAPTER XXIX.
THE HISTORICAL BOOKS--1. The New Testament a Necessary Sequel to the
Old--The Two Testaments interpret Each Other, and can be truly
understood only as an Organic Whole--2. Remarks on the Use Made of the
Old Testament by the Writers of the New--Fundamental Character of the
Gospel Narratives--I. _The Gospel as a Whole_--3. Signification of the
Word "Gospel"--Its Primary and Secondary Application--4. General Remarks
on the Relation of the Gospels to Each Other--5. Agreements of the
Synoptic Gospels--6. Differences--7. Theories of the Origin of these
Three Gospels: That of Mutual Dependence; That of Original Documents;
That of Oral Apostolic Tradition--Remarks on this Tradition--Its
Distinction from Tradition in the Modern Sense--8. No One of the Gospels
gives the Entire History of our Lord, nor always observes the Strict
Chronological Order of Events--Remarks on our Lord's Life before his
Baptism--9. Remarks on the Peculiar Character of the Fourth Gospel--This
and the other Three mutually Supplementary to Each Other--10. Harmonies
of the Gospels--Relative Size of the Gospels--II. _Matthew_--11.
Personal Notices of Matthew--12. Original Language of his Gospel--The
Problem stated--13. Testimony of the Ancients on this Point--14. Various
Hypotheses considered--15. Primary Design of this Gospel to show that
Jesus of Nazareth was the Promised Messiah--16. He is also exhibited as
the Saviour of the World--17. Fulness of Matthew's Record in Respect to
our Lord's Discourses--18. He does not always follow the Exact Order of
Time--19. Place and Date--20. Integrity--Genuineness of the First Two
Chapters--III. _Mark_--21. Personal Notices of Mark--Intimate Relation
of Mark to Peter and Paul--22. Place--Date--Language--23. Design of this
Gospel to exhibit Jesus as the Son of God--He makes the Works of Jesus
more Prominent than his Discourses--24. Characteristics of Mark as a
Historian--25. Closing Passage in Mark's Gospel--IV. _Luke_--26. Notices
of Luke in the New Testament--27. Sources of his Gospel--His Relation to
Paul--28. Date and Place of Writing--29. Universal Aspect of Luke's
Gospel--30. Its Character and Plan--Comparison of the Gospels in Respect
to Peculiar Matter and Concordances--31. Integrity of Luke's Gospel--The
Two Genealogies of Matthew and Luke--V. _John_--32. John's Manner of
indicating himself--33. Personal Notices of him--34. Late Composition of
his Gospel and Place of Writing--35. Peculiarity of this Gospel in
Respect to Subject-Matter--Its Relation to the First Three Gospels--36.
General Design of this Gospel--It is peculiarly the Gospel of Christ's
Person--VI. _Acts of the Apostles_--37. Author of this Book--38. Plan of
the Book--Its First Division; Second Division--Notices of Antioch--39.
Office of this Book--Portraiture of the Apostolic Age of Christianity;
Cursory View of the Inauguration of the Christian Church; Various Steps
by which the Abolition of the Middle Wall of Partition between Jews and
Gentiles was effected--40. Concluding Remarks
CHAPTER XXX.
THE EPISTLES OF PAUL--1. General Remarks on the Epistles--2. Paul's
Epistles all written in the Prosecution of his Work as the Apostle to
the Gentiles--Nature of this Work--3. Paul's Peculiar Qualifications for
this Work--His Mode of Procedure--Union in him of Firmness and
Flexibility--4. Character of the Apostle's Style--5. Points to be
noticed in the Separate Epistles--Notices of Paul's Labors in the Acts
of the Apostles--6. Present Arrangement of Paul's Epistles and of the
Epistles generally--Chronological Order of Paul's Epistles--Four Groups
of these Epistles--I. _Epistle to the Romans_--7. Date and Place of this
Epistle--8. Composition of the Roman Church--9. Occasion and Design of
the Epistle--Its General Outlines--10. Special Office of this
Epistle--II. _Epistles to the Corinthians_--_First Epistle_--11. Place
and Time of its Composition--12. Notices of the Corinthian
Church--Occasion of the Apostle's Writing--13. General Tone of the
Epistle as contrasted with that to the Galatians--_Second Epistle_--14.
Place and Time of its Composition--15. Its Occasion--Prominence of the
Apostle's Personality in this Epistle and its Ground--Peculiarities of
its Diction--Its Office in the Economy of Revelation--III. _Epistle to
the Galatians_--16. Historical Notice of Galatia--Missionary Visits of
the Apostle to that Province--Date of the Present Epistle and Place of
Composition--17. Occasion and Design--18. Outlines of the Epistle--The
Historic Part, the Argumentative, the Practical--IV. _Epistles to the
Ephesians, Colossians, and Philemon_--19. Contemporaneousness of these
Epistles--20. Place and Date--21. Chronological Order of the First
Two--_Epistle to the Colossians_--22. Notices of Colosse and the Church
there--Occasion of this Epistle--Character of the False Teachers at
Colosse--23. Outlines of the Epistle--Its Argumentative Part, its
Practical--The Epistle from Laodicca--_Epistle to the Ephesians_--24.
Notices of Ephesus--Labors of Paul at Ephesus--Occasion of the Present
Epistle--Its General Character--Various Hypotheses respecting it--25.
Its Outlines--Its Argumentative Part, its Practical--_Epistle to
Philemon_--26. Its Occasion and Design--V. _Epistle to the
Philippians_--27. Notices of Philippi and the Formation of the Church
there--28. Occasion of this Epistle--Place and Date of its
Composition--29. Its Character--General View of its Contents--VI.
_Epistles to the Thessalonians_--30. Notices of Thessalonica and the
Apostle's Labors there--_First Epistle to the Thessalonians_--31. Date
and Place of its Composition--32. Its Occasion and Design--Outlines of
the Epistle--_Second Epistle_--33. Place of Writing and Date--Its
Design--Its General Outlines--34. Comparison between the Epistles to the
Thessalonians and that to the Philippians--VII. _The Pastoral
Epistles_--35. The Date of these Epistles and Related Questions--36.
Character of the False Teachers referred to in these Epistles--37.
Genuineness of the Pastoral Epistles--38. Their Office--_First Epistle
to Timothy_--39. Its Date and Place of Composition--Its Occasion and
Design--Its Contents--Scriptural Notices of Timothy--_Epistle to
Titus_--40. Its Agreement with the Preceding Epistle--The Cretan Church
and Titus--_Second Epistle, to Timothy_--41. Its Occasion and Character
in Contrast with the Two Preceding Epistles--Its Office--_Epistle to the
Hebrews_--42. Question of its Authorship--How it was regarded in the
Eastern Church--How in the Western--General Remark--43. Persons
addressed in this Epistle--Time and Place of its Composition--Manner of
Reference to the Levitical Priesthood and Temple Services--44. Central
Theme of this Epistle--Dignity of Christ's Person in Contrast with the
Ancient Prophets, with Angels, and with Moses--Divine Efficacy of his
Priesthood in Contrast with that of the Sons of Aaron--Design of the
Epistle--Its Office in the System of Revelation
CHAPTER XXXI.
THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES--1. Origin of the Name "Catholic"--1. _Epistle of
James_--2. Question respecting the Person of James--3. Place of Writing
this Epistle--Persons addressed--4. Question of its Date--5. Its
Genuineness and Canonical Authority--6. Its Practical Character--Alleged
Disagreement between Paul and James without Foundation--II. _Epistles of
Peter_--_First Epistle_--7. Its Canonical Authority always
acknowledged--8. Persons addressed--9. Place of its Composition--Its
Occasion and Date--Traditions respecting Peter--10. Outline of the
Epistle--_Second Epistle_--11. Persons addressed--Time of Writing--12.
Question respecting the Genuineness of this Epistle--External
Testimonies--Internal Evidence--General Result--13. Object of the
Present Epistle--Peculiar Character of the Second Chapter--Its Agreement
with the Epistle of Jude--III. _Epistles of John_--_First Epistle of
John_--14. Its Acknowledged Canonicity--Time and Place of its
Composition--Persons addressed--15. General View of its
Contents--_Second and Third Epistles_--16. Their Common
Authorship--Their Genuineness--17. The Occasion and Office of Each--IV.
_Epistle of Jude_--18. Question respecting Jude's Person--Time of the
Epistle, and Persons addressed--19. Its Canonical Authority--Its Design
CHAPTER XXXII.
THE APOCALYPSE--1. Meaning of the Word "Apocalypse"--Abundance of
External Testimonies to this Book--2. Internal Arguments considered--Use
of the Apostle's Name, Devotional Views, Spirit of the Writer, Style and
Diction--Here must be taken into Account the Difference between this
Book and John's other Writings in Subject-Matter, in the Mode of Divine
Revelation, in the Writer's Mental State and Circumstances; also its
Poetic Diction--General Results--3. Date of the Apocalypse and Place of
Writing--4. Different Schemes of Interpretation--The Generic--The
Historic--5. Symbolic Import of the Numbers in this Book--The number
Seven, Half of Seven, Six; The Number Four, a Third and Fourth Part; the
Number Twelve; the Number Ten--6. Office of the Apocalypse in the System
of Revelation
APPENDIX TO PART III.
WRITINGS OF THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS, WITH SOME NOTICES OF THE APOCRYPHAL
NEW TESTAMENT WRITINGS--1. The Writings of the Apostolic Fathers
distinguished from the Proper New Testament Apocrypha--Some Remarks on
the Character of these Writings
I. _Writings of Clement of Rome_--2. His Epistle to the Romans--Its
Genuineness Character, and Age--3. Its Occasion, with a Notice of its
Contents--4. The so-called Second Epistle of Clement to the
Corinthians--Its Genuineness not admitted--Vague and General Character
of its Contents--5. Notice of some Other Writings falsely ascribed to
Clement--Recognitions of Clement, and the Clementines, with their Plan
and Contents; Constitutions of Clement, and their Contents; Apostolic
Canons
II. _Epistles of Ignatius_--6. Notices of Ignatius--The Seven Genuine
Epistles that bear his Name--Unsatisfactory State of the Text--Syriac
and Armenian Versions--Enumeration of these Epistles--Their
Character--Strong Ecclesiastical Spirit that pervades them--His Letter
to the Romans--The Undue Desire of Martyrdom which it manifests--His
Letter to Polycarp--7. Spurious Epistles ascribed to Ignatius, and their
Character
III. _Epistle of Polycarp_--8. Notices of Polycarp--His Epistle to the
Philippians--Its Character and Contents--Time and Occasion of its
Composition
IV. _Writings of Barnabas and Hermas_--9. Their Doubtful Authority--10.
The So-called Epistle of Barnabas--Tischendorf's Discovery of the
Original Greek Text--The Author and Date of the Work--Notice of its
Contents--Its Fanciful Method of Interpretation--11. The Shepherd of
Hernias--Outward Form of the Work--Its Internal Character--Its Author
and Age
V. _The Apostle's Creed_--12. In what Sense it belongs to the Apostolic
Fathers--Apostolic Character of its Contents
VI. _Apocryphal Gospels and Acts--13._ Their Number--Their Worthless
Character in Contrast with that of the Canonical Gospels and Acts
* * * * *
PART IV.
A DISCUSSION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION.
CHAPTER XXXIII.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS--1. Definition of Certain Terms--Hermeneutics,
Exegesis, Epexegesis--2. The Expositor's Office--Parallel between his
Work and that of the Textual Critic--3. Qualifications of the Biblical
Interpreter--A Supreme Regard for Truth--4. A Sound Judgment with the
Power of Vivid Conception--Office of Each of these Qualities and their
Relation to Each Other--5. Sympathy with Divine Truth--6. Extensive and
Varied Acquirements--The Original Languages of the Bible; Sacred
Geography and Natural History; Biblical Antiquities; Ancient History and
Chronology--7. General Remarks on the above Qualifications--8. The Human
and Divine Side to Biblical Interpretation--The Importance of observing
Both
FIRST DIVISION--INTERPRETATION VIEWED ON THE HUMAN SIDE.
CHAPTER XXXIV.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF INTERPRETATION--1. Signification of the Terms
employed how ascertained, with some Superadded Remarks--2. On
Ascertaining the Sense of Scripture--3. The Scope General and
Special--Its Supreme Importance illustrated--How the Scope is to be
ascertained--The Author's Statements; Inferential Remarks; Historical
Circumstances--Important Help derived from the Repeated and Careful
Perusal of a Work--4. The Context defined and distinguished from the
Scope--Indispensable Necessity of attending to it--This illustrated by
Examples--Question respecting the Limits of the Context--In some Cases
no Context exists--On the Use of Biblical Texts as Mottoes--Various
Applications of the Principle contained in a Given Passage a Legitimate
Mode of Exposition--5. Parallelisms Verbal and Real--Help derived from
the Former--Subdivision of Real Parallelisms into Doctrinal and
Historic--Importance of Doctrinal Parallelisms with Illustrations--Value
of Historic Parallelisms illustrated--Difficulties arising from them,
and the Principle of their Adjustment--Illustration--6. External
Acquirements--Various Illustrations of the Importance of these--7. Sound
Judgment--Office of this Quality illustrated--Inept Interpretations:
Interpretations Contrary to the Nature of the Subject; Necessary
Limitations of an Author's Meaning; Reconciliation of Apparent
Contradictions; Forced and Unnatural Explanations and the Rejection of
Well-established Facts--8. Remarks on the Proper Office of Reason in
Interpretation
CHAPTER XXXV.
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE OF SCRIPTURE--1. Figurative Language defined and
illustrated--General Remarks respecting it--2. Rules for the
Ascertaining of Figurative Language--Nature of the Subject; Scope,
Context, and Analogy of Scripture--Error of understanding Literal
Language figuratively--Remark on the Interpretation of Prophecy--3.
Different Kinds of Figures--The Trope in its Varieties of Metonymy,
Synecdoche, and Metaphor--Remarks on Comparisons--The Allegory--Its
Definition and Distinction from the Metaphor--Distinction between True
Allegory and the Allegorical Interpretation of History--The Parable--How
distinguished from the Allegory--The Fable--The Symbol--Its Various
Forms--The Proverb--It always embodies a General Truth--Its Various
Forms--Signification of the Word "Myth"--It does not come within the
Sphere of Scriptural Interpretation--4. General Remarks on the
Interpretation of the Figurative Language of Scripture--5. Its Certainty
and Truthfulness--6. Key to the Interpretation of the Allegory--
Examples: The Vine Transplanted from Egypt, Psa. 80; the two Eagles
and the Cedar Bough, Ezek. 17:3-10; The Song of Solomon; the Two
Allegories of Ezekiel, chaps., 16 and 23-7. The Interpretation of the
Parable--How it differs from that of the Allegory--Point of Primary
Importance--How far the Details are significant--Examples: The Sower,
Matt. 13:3-8, 19-23; the Tares in the Field Matt. 13:24-30, 37-43; the
Ten Virgins, Matt, 25:1-13--Remark respecting the Personages introduced
in Parables with Illustrations--The Unforgiving Servant, Matt. 18:
23-35; the Importunate Friend, Luke 11:5-8; the Unjust Judge, Luke
18:1-8; the Unfaithful Steward, Luke 16:1-9--8. Scriptural Symbols-How
to determine whether they are Real or Seen in Prophetic
Vision--Principles on which they are to be interpreted--Examples--9.
Remarks on the Interpretation of Numerical Symbols
SECOND DIVISION--INTERPRETATION VIEWED ON THE DIVINE SIDE.
CHAPTER XXXVI.
UNITY OF REVELATION--1. Essential Unity between the Old and the New
Testament--2. This Unity one that coexists with Great Diversity--
Illustrations from the Analogy of God's Works--3. Unity in
Diversity in Respect to the Form of God's Kingdom--4. The Forms of
Public Worship--5. Forms of Religious Labor--6. Spirit of Revelation--7.
Way of Salvation--8. Sternness of the Mosaic Dispensation explained from
its Preparatory Character--9. Inferences from the Unity of
Revelation--9. Each Particular Revelation Perfect in its Measure--10.
The Later Revelations the Exponents of the Earlier; Christ and his
Apostles in a Special Sense the Expositors of the New Testament--11. The
Extent of Meaning in a Given Revelation that which the Holy Spirit
intended--12. The Obscure Declarations of Scripture to be interpreted
from the Clear, with Illustrations--13. Remarks on the Analogy of
Faith--The Term Defined--Rules for its Use
CHAPTER XXXVII.
SCRIPTURAL TYPES--1. Types distinguished from Analogy--2. And from the
Foreshadowing of Future Events by the Present--3. The Type defined in
its Three Essential Characters
I. _Historical Types_--4. In Respect to these Two Extremes to be
avoided--Typical History has a Proper Significance of its Own--This
illustrated by Examples: The Kingly Office; the Prophetical Office;
Typical Transactions--Remarks on the Inadequacy of All Types
II. _Ritual Types_--5. The Sacrifices the Essential Part of the Mosaic
Ritual--What is implied in them--The Sanctuary God's Visible
Dwelling-place where alone they could be offered--6. The Mosaic
Tabernacle described--7. Its General Typical Import--8. Significance of
its Different Parts and Appointments--Preciousness of the Materials;
Gradation in this Respect--9. The Inner Sanctuary with its
Appointments--10. The Outer Sanctuary with its Appointments--11. The
Brazen Altar with its Laver--The Levitical Priests typified Christ--12.
The Levitical Sacrifices typified Christ's Offering of Himself for the
Sins of the World--This shown from Scripture--General Remark respecting
Christ's Propitiatory Sacrifice--13. Characteristics of the Types
Themselves--The Levitical Priests had a Common Human Nature with those
for whom they officiated; were appointed to their Office by God; were
Mediators between God and the People; and Mediators through Propitiatory
Sacrifices--Points of Dissimilarity between the Type and the
Antitype--Remarks on the Central Idea of Priesthood--14. Scriptural Idea
of Sacrifice the Offering of One Life in Behalf of Another--
Classification of the Levitical Sacrifices with the Ideas
belonging to Each: Sin and Trespass Offerings; Burnt Offerings;
Peace-Offerings--Sacrificial Nature of the Passover--Other Sacrifices of
a Special Character--All Sacrificial Victims to be without Blemish--The
Unbloody Offerings and their Signification--15. Typical Transactions
connected with the Sacrifices and Oblations: The Laying of the Offerer's
Hands on the Head of the Victim; the Waving and Heaving of Offerings;
the Sprinkling of the Victim's Blood; the Burning of the Offering--16.
Typical Meaning of the Tabernacle as a Whole--The Several Points of
Adumbration considered: Adumbration of God's Presence with Men;
Impossibility of approaching God without a Mediator; Adumbration of
Christ's Expiatory Sacrifice and Heavenly Intercession on the Great Day
of Atonement; Burning of the Victim without the Camp--17. Distinctions
between Clean and Unclean--Levitical View of Bodily Infirmities
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
INTERPRETATION OF PROPHECY--1. General Remarks
I. _Prophecies relating to the Near Future_--2. Their Specific
Character--Examples
II. _Prophecies relating to the Last Days_--3. Meaning of the Term "Last
Days," and its Equivalents--General Character of this Class of
Prophecies--4. Prophecies in which the Order of Events is
indicated--Daniel's Fourth Monarchy; the Great Red Dragon of Revelation,
the Two Beasts that succeeded to his Power, and the Woman riding a
Scarlet-Colored Beast--5. Prophecies which give General Views of the
Future--Examples--6. The Prophets give an Inward View of the Vital
Forces which sustain and extend God's Kingdom--Unity of the Plan of
Redemption; its Continual Progress; Indications of the End towards which
it is tending; the End Itself the Chief Object of Interest--Great Crisis
in the Church's History--Spirit that should actuate the Interpreter of
Prophecy
III. _Question of Double Sense_--7. The Term defined--8. Examples of
Literal and Typical Sense--Melchizedek's Priesthood; the Rest of
Canaan--9. The Messianic Psalms--Different Principles on which they are
interpreted: Exclusive Application to Christ; Reference to an Ideal
Personage; Christ the Head and his Body the Church; Typical View--10.
The Principle of Progressive Fulfilment
IV. _Question of Literal and Figurative Meaning_--11. General
Remarks--12. Representative Use in Prophecy of Past Events--13. Of the
Institutions of the Mosaic Economy--14. The Principle of Figurative
Interpretation not to be pressed as Exclusive--15. Question of the
Literal Restoration of the Jews to the Land of Canaan--16. Question of
our Lord's Personal Reign on Earth during the Millennium
CHAPTER XXXIX.
QUOTATIONS FROM THE OLD TESTAMENT IN THE NEW--1. General Remarks on the
Authority of the New Testament Writers--2. Outward Form of their
Quotations--Its very Free Spirit--This illustrated by Example--3.
Contents of the New Testament Quotations--The So-called Principle of
Accommodation; in what Sense True, and in what Sense to be rejected--4.
Quotations by Way of Argument--5. Quotations as Prophecies of Christ and
his Kingdom--Remarks on the Formula: "That it might be fulfilled"--6.
Prophecies referring immediately to Christ--7. Prophecies referring to
Christ under a Type--Closing Remark
PART I.
EVIDENCES OF REVEALED RELIGION.
PREFATORY REMARKS.
Many thousands of persons have a full and joyous conviction of the truth
of Christianity from their own experience, who yet feel a reasonable
desire to examine the _historic evidence_ by which it is confirmed, if
not for the strengthening of their own faith, yet for the purpose of
silencing gainsayers, and guarding the young against the cavils of
infidelity. It is our duty to give to those who ask us a reason of the
hope that is in us; and although our own personal experience may be to
ourselves a satisfactory ground of assurance, we cannot ask others to
take the gospel on our testimony alone. It is highly desirable that we
understand and be able to set forth with clearness and convincing power
the proofs that this plan of salvation has God for its author.
Then there is a class of earnest inquirers who find themselves perplexed
with the difficulties which they hear urged against the gospel, and
which they find themselves unable to solve in a satisfactory way. It is
of the highest importance that such persons be met in a candid spirit;
that the immense mass of evidence by which the Christian religion is
sustained be clearly set before them; and that they understand that a
religion thus supported is not to be rejected on the ground that there
are difficulties connected with it which have not yet been
solved--perhaps never can be solved here below.
Are you, reader, such an earnest inquirer after truth? We present to you
in the following pages a brief summary of the historic evidence by which
the Bible, with the plan of salvation which it reveals, is shown to be
the word of God; and we wish, here at the outset, to suggest to you some
cautions respecting the state of mind with which this great inquiry is
to be pursued.
First of all, we remind you that, whatever else may be uncertain, you
know that you must soon die, and try for yourself the realities of the
unseen world. The question now before you is, Whether God has spoken
from heaven, and made any revelations concerning that world. If so, they
are more precious than gold; for in the decisive hour of death you will
wish to know not what man, the sinner, has reasoned and conjectured
concerning a future judgment, forgiveness of sin, and the life to come;
but what God, the Judge, has declared. Now the Bible claims to contain
such a message from God. If its claims are valid, it will not flatter
you and speak to you smooth things, but will tell you the truth. And you
must be prepared to receive the truth, though it condemn you. Sooner or
later you must meet the truth face to face: be ready to do so now; you
have no interest in error; falsehood and delusion cannot help you, but
will destroy you.
Do not come to the examination of this great question with the idea that
you must clear away all mysteries connected with the gospel before you
believe it. The world in which you live is full of mysteries. One would
think that if any thing could be fully comprehended, it must be the acts
of which we are ourselves the authors. By a volition you raise your hand
to your head; but _how_ is the act performed? True, there is in your
body an apparatus of nerves, muscles, joints, and the like; but in what
way does the human will have power over this apparatus? No man can
answer this question: it is wrapped in deep mystery. Why be offended,
then, because the way of salvation revealed in the Bible has like
mysteries--mysteries concerning not your duty, but God's secret and
inscrutable methods of acting?
And since the question now before you is not one of mere speculation,
but one that concerns your immediate duty, be on your guard against the
seductive influence of sinful passion and sinful habit. There is a deep
and solemn meaning in the words of Jesus: "Every one that doeth evil
hateth the light, neither cometh to the light, lest his deeds should be
reproved." Corrupt feeling in the heart and corrupt practice in the life
have a terrible power to blind the mind. The man who comes to the
examination of the Bible with a determination to persist in doing what
he knows to be wrong, or in omitting what he knows to be right, will
certainly err from the truth; for he is not in a proper state of mind to
love it and welcome it to his soul.
Remember also that it is not the grosser passions and forms of vice
alone that darken the understanding and alienate the heart from the
truth. Pride, vanity, ambition, avarice--in a word, the spirit of
self-seeking and self-exaltation in every form--will effectually hinder
the man in whose bosom they bear sway from coming to the knowledge of
the truth; for they will incline him to seek a religion which flatters
him and promises him impunity in sin, and will fatally prejudice him
against a system of doctrines and duties so holy and humbling as that
contained in the Bible. Take, as a comprehensive rule for the
investigation of this weighty question, the words of the Saviour: "If
any man will do his will"--the will of God--"he shall know of the
doctrine, whether it be of God, or whether I speak of myself." So far as
you already know the will of God, do it; do it sincerely, earnestly, and
prayerfully, and God will give you more light. He loves the truth, and
sympathizes with all earnest and sincere inquirers after it. He never
leaves to fatal error and delusion any but those who love falsehood
rather than truth, because they have pleasure in unrighteousness. Open
your heart to the light of heaven, and God will shine into it from
above; so that, in the beautiful words of our Saviour, "the whole shall
be full of light, as when the bright shining of a candle doth give thee
light."
COMPANION TO THE BIBLE.
* * * * *
EVIDENCES OF REVEALED RELIGION.
* * * * *
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
I. The Christian religion is not a mere system of ideas, like the
philosophy of Plato or Aristotle. It rests on a _basis of historic
facts_. The great central fact of the gospel is thus expressed by Jesus
himself: "God so loved the world that he gave his only begotten Son,
that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have everlasting
life," John 3:16; and by the apostle Paul thus: "This is a faithful
saying, and worthy of all acceptation, that Christ Jesus came into the
world to save sinners." 1 Tim. 1:15. With the appearance of God's Son in
human nature were connected a series of mighty works, a body of divine
teachings, the appointment of apostles and the establishment of the
visible Christian church; all which are matters of historic record.
Nor is this all. It is the constant doctrine of Christ and his apostles
that he came in accordance with the scriptures of the Old Testament, and
that his religion is the fulfilment of the types and prophecies therein
contained: "Think not that I am come to destroy the law, or the
prophets: I am not come to destroy, but to fulfil." Matt. 5:17. "All
things must be fulfilled which were written in the law of Moses, and in
the prophets, and in the psalms concerning me." Luke 24:44. The facts of
the New Testament connect themselves, therefore, immediately with those
of the Old, so that the whole series constitutes an indivisible whole.
The Bible is, from beginning to end, the record of a supernatural
revelation made by God to men. As such, it embraces not only
supernatural teachings, but supernatural facts also; and the teachings
rest on the facts in such a way that both must stand or fall together.
II. This basis of supernatural facts, then, must be firmly maintained
against unbelievers whose grand aim is to _destroy the historic
foundation_ of the gospel, at least so far as it contains supernatural
manifestations of God to men. Thus they would rob it of its divine
authority, and reduce it to a mere system of human doctrines, like the
teachings of Socrates or Confucius, which men are at liberty to receive
or reject as they think best. Could they accomplish this, they would be
very willing to eulogize the character of Jesus, and extol the purity
and excellence of his precepts. Indeed, it is the fashion of modern
unbelievers, after doing what lies in their power to make the gospel a
mass of "cunningly-devised fables" of human origin, to expatiate on the
majesty and beauty of the Saviour's character, the excellence of his
moral precepts, and the benign influence of his religion. But the
transcendent glory of our Lord's character is inseparable from his being
what he claimed to be--the Son of God, coming from God to men with
supreme authority; and all the power of his gospel lies in its being
received as a message from God. To make the gospel human, is to
annihilate it, and with it the hope of the world.
III. When the inquiry is concerning a long series of events intimately
connected together so as to constitute one inseparable whole, two
methods of investigation are open to us. We may look at the train of
events in the order of time from beginning to end; or we may select some
one great event of especial prominence and importance as the _central
point_ of inquiry, and from that position look forward and backward. The
latter of these two methods has some peculiar advantages, and will be
followed in the present brief treatise. We begin with the great central
fact of revelation already referred to, that "the Father sent the Son to
be the Saviour of the world." 1 John 4:14. When this is shown to rest on
a foundation that cannot be shaken, the remainder of the work is
comparatively easy. From the supernatural appearance and works of the
Son of God, as recorded in the four gospels, the supernatural endowment
and works of his apostles, as recorded in the Acts of the Apostles, and
their authoritative teachings, as contained in their epistles, follow as
a natural and even necessary sequel. Since, moreover, the universal rule
of God's government and works is, "first the blade, then the ear, after
that the full corn in the ear," (Mark 4:28,) it is most reasonable to
suppose that such a full and perfect revelation as that which God has
made to us by his Son, which is certainly "the full corn in the ear,"
must have been preceded by exactly such preparatory revelations as we
find recorded in the Old Testament. Now Jesus of Nazareth appeared among
the Jews, the very people that had the scriptures of the Old Testament,
and had been prepared for his advent by the events recorded in them as
no other nation was prepared. He came, too, as he and his apostles ever
taught, to carry out the plan of redemption begun in them. From the
position, then, of Christ's advent, as the grand central fact of
redemption, we look backward and forward with great advantage upon the
whole line of revelation.
IV. We cannot too earnestly inculcate upon the youthful inquirer the
necessity of thus looking at _revelation as a whole_. Strong as are the
evidences for the truth of the gospel narratives considered separately,
they gain new strength, on the one side, from the mighty revelations
that preceded them and prepared the way for the advent of the Son of
God; and on the other, from the mighty events that followed his advent
in the apostolic age, and have been following ever since in the history
of the Christian church. The divine origin of the Mosaic institutions
can be shown on solid grounds, independently of the New Testament; but
on how much broader and deeper a foundation are they seen to rest, when
we find (as will be shown hereafter, chap. 8) that they were preparatory
to the incarnation of Jesus Christ. As in a burning mass, the heat and
flame of each separate piece of fuel are increased by the surrounding
fire, so in the plan of redemption, each separate revelation receives
new light and glory from the revelations which precede and follow it. It
is only when we view the revelations of the Bible as thus progressing
"from glory to glory," that we can estimate aright the proofs of their
divine origin. If it were even possible to impose upon men as miraculous
a particular event, as, for example, the giving of the Mosaic law on
Sinai, or the stones of the day of Pentecost, the idea that there could
have been imposed on the world a series of such events, extending
through many ages, and yet so connected together as to constitute a
harmonious and consistent whole, is a simple absurdity. There is no
explanation of the unity that pervades the supernatural facts of
revelation, but that of their divine origin.
V. In strong contrast with this rational way of viewing the facts of
revelation as a grand whole, is the fragmentary method of objectors. A
doubt here, a cavil there, an insinuation yonder; a difficulty with this
statement, an objection to that, a discrepancy here--this is their
favorite way of assailing the gospel. If one chooses to treat the Bible
in this narrow and uncandid way, he will soon plunge himself into the
mire of unbelief. Difficulties and objections should be candidly
considered, and allowed their due weight; but they must not be suffered
to override irrefragable proof, else we shall soon land in universal
skepticism: for difficulties, and some of them too insoluble, can be
urged against the great facts of nature and natural religion, as well as
of revelation. To reject a series of events supported by an overwhelming
weight of evidence, on the ground of unexplained difficulties connected
with them, involves the absurdity of running into a hundred difficulties
for the sake of avoiding five. If we are willing to examine the claims
of revelation as a whole, its divine origin will shine forth upon us
like the sun in the firmament. Our difficulties we can then calmly
reserve for further investigation here, or for solution in the world to
come.
VI. When we institute an examination concerning the facts of revelation,
the first question is that of the genuineness and uncorrupt preservation
of the books in which they are recorded; the next, that of their
authenticity and credibility. We may then conveniently consider the
question of their inspiration. In accordance with the plan marked out
above, (No. III.,) the gospel narratives will be considered first of
all; then the remaining books of the New Testament. After this will be
shown the inseparable connection between the facts of revelation
recorded in the Old Testament and those of the New; and finally, the
genuineness of the books which constitute the canon of the Old
Testament, with their authenticity and inspiration. The whole treatise
will be closed by a brief view of the internal and experimental
evidences which commend the Bible to the human understanding and
conscience as the word of God.
CHAPTER II.
GENUINENESS OF THE GOSPEL NARRATIVES.
I. _Preliminary Remarks._ 1. A book is _genuine_ if written by the man
whose name it bears, or to whom it is ascribed; or when, as in the case
of several books of the Old Testament, the author is unknown, it is
genuine if written in the age and country to which it is ascribed. A
book is _authentic_ which is a record of facts as opposed to what is
false or fictitious; and we call it _credible_ when the record of facts
which it professes to give is worthy of belief. Authenticity and
credibility are, therefore, only different views of the same quality.
In the case of a book that deals mainly with _principles_, the
question of authorship is of subordinate importance. Thus the
book of Job, with the exception of the brief narratives with
which it opens and closes, and which may belong to any one of
several centuries, is occupied with the question of Divine
providence. It is not necessary that we know what particular man
was its author, or at what precise period he wrote. We only need
reasonable evidence (as will be shown hereafter) that he was a
prophetical man, writing under the guidance of the Holy Spirit.
But the case of the gospel narratives is wholly different. They
contain a record of the supernatural appearance and works of the
Son of God, on the truth of which rests our faith in the gospel.
So the apostle Paul reasons: "If Christ be not risen, then is
our preaching vain, and your faith is also vain." 1 Cor. 15:14.
It is, then, of vital importance that we know the relation which
the authors of these narratives held to Christ. If they were not
_apostles_ or _apostolic men_, that is, associates of the
apostles, laboring with them, enjoying their full confidence,
and in circumstances to obtain their information directly from
them--but, instead of this, wrote after the apostolic age--their
testimony is not worthy of the unlimited faith which the church
in all ages has reposed in it. The question, then, of the
genuineness of the gospel narratives and that of their
authenticity and credibility must stand or fall together.
2. In respect to the _origin_ of the gospels, as also of the other books
of the New Testament, the following things should be carefully
remembered:
_First._ There was a period, extending, perhaps, through some years from
the day of Pentecost, when there were no written gospels, their place
being supplied by the living presence and teachings of the apostles and
other disciples of our Lord.
_Secondly._ When the need of written documents began to be felt, they
were produced, one after another, as occasion suggested them. Thus the
composition of the books of the New Testament extended through a
considerable period of years.
_Thirdly._ Besides the gospels universally received by the churches,
other narratives of our Lord's life were attempted, as we learn from the
evangelist Luke (1:1); but those never obtained general currency. The
churches everywhere received the four gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke,
and John, because of the clear evidence which they had of their
apostolic origin and trustworthiness; and because, also, these gospels,
though not professing to give a complete account of our Lord's life and
teachings, were nevertheless sufficiently full to answer the end for
which they were composed, being not fragmentary sketches, but orderly
narratives, each of them extending over the whole course of our Lord's
ministry. The other narratives meanwhile gradually passed into oblivion.
The general reception of these four gospels did not, however, come from
any formal concert of action on the part of the churches, (as, for
example, from the authoritative decision of a general council, since no
such thing as a general council of the churches was known till long
after this period;) but simply from the common perception everywhere of
the unimpeachable evidence by which their apostolic authority was
sustained.
The narratives referred to by Luke were earlier than his gospel.
They were not spurious, nor, so far as we know, unauthentic; but
rather imperfect. They must not be confounded with the
apocryphal gospels of a later age.
3. In respect to the quotations of Scripture by the early fathers of the
church, it is important to notice their habit of quoting anonymously,
and often in a loose and general way. They frequently cite from memory,
blending together the words of different authors, and sometimes
intermingling with them their own words. In citing the prophecies of the
Old Testament in an argumentative way, they are, as might have been
expected, more exact, particularly when addressing Jews; yet even here
they often content themselves with the scope of the passages referred
to, without being particular as to the exact words.
With the above preliminary remarks, we proceed to consider the
evidences, external and internal, for the genuineness of the gospel
narratives.
II. _External Evidences._ 4. Here we need not begin at a later date than
the last quarter of the second century. This is the age of Irenæus in
Gaul, of Tertullian in North Africa, of Clement of Alexandria in Egypt,
and of some other writers. Their testimony to the apostolic origin and
universal reception of our four canonical gospels is as full as can be
desired. They give the names of the authors, two of them--Matthew and
John--apostles, and the other two--Mark and Luke--companions of apostles
and fellow-laborers with them, always associating Mark with Peter, and
Luke with Paul; they affirm the universal and undisputed reception of
these four gospels from the beginning by all the churches; and deny the
apostolic authority of other pretended gospels. In all this, they give
not their individual opinions, but the common belief of the churches. It
is conceded on all hands that in their day these four gospels were
universally received by the churches as genuine and authoritative
records of our Lord's life and works, to the exclusion of all others.
_Irenæus_ was a native of Asia Minor, of Greek descent; but the
seat of his labors was Lyons and Vienne in Gaul, of the former
of which places he became bishop after the martyrdom of
Pothinus, about A.D. 177. He was born about A.D. 140, and
suffered martyrdom under Septimius Severus A.D. 202. In his
youth he was a disciple of Polycarp, who was in turn a disciple
of the apostle John. In a letter to one Florinus, which Eusebius
has preserved, (Hist. Eccl., 5. 20,) he gives, in glowing
language, his recollections of the person and teachings of
Polycarp, and tells with what interest he listened as this man
related his intercourse with the apostle John and the others who
had seen the Lord, "how he recounted their words, and the things
which he had heard from them concerning the Lord, and concerning
his miracles and teaching." And he adds that these things which
Polycarp had received from eye-witnesses he related "all in
agreement with the Scriptures;" that is, obviously, with the
gospel narratives. Pothinus, the predecessor of Irenæus at
Lyons, was ninety years old at the time of his martyrdom, and
must have been acquainted with many who belonged to the latter
part of the apostolic age. Under such circumstances, it is
inconceivable that Irenæus, who knew the Christian traditions of
both the East and the West, should not have known the truth
respecting the reception of the gospels by the churches, and the
grounds on which this reception rested, more especially in the
case of the gospel of John. Tischendorf, after mentioning the
relation of Irenæus to Polycarp the disciple of John, asks, with
reason: "Are we, nevertheless, to cherish the supposition that
Irenæus never heard a word from Polycarp respecting the gospel
of John, and yet gave it his unconditional confidence--this man
Irenæus, who in his controversies with heretics, the men of
falsification and apocryphal works, employs against them, before
all other things, the pure Scripture as a holy weapon?" (Essay,
When were Our Gospels Written, p. 8.) The testimony of Irenæus
is justly regarded as of the most weighty character. The fact
that he gives several fanciful reasons why there should be only
four gospels, (Against Heresies, 3. 11,) does not invalidate his
statement of the fact that the churches had always received
four, and no more. We always distinguish between men's testimony
to facts of which they are competent witnesses, and their
philosophical explanations of these facts.
_Tertullian_ was born in Carthage about A.D. 160, and died
between A.D. 220 and 240. About A.D. 202 he joined the sect of
the Montanists; but this does not affect his testimony
respecting the origin and universal reception of the four
canonical gospels. His works are very numerous, and in them all
he insists with great earnestness that the gospel narratives, as
also the other apostolic writings, have been received without
corruption, as a sacred inheritance, from the apostolic
churches. His work against Marcion, whom he accuses of employing
a mutilated gospel of Luke, is particularly instructive as
showing how deep and settled was the conviction of the early
Christians that nothing could be a gospel which did not proceed
from apostles or apostolic men; and how watchful they were
against all attempts to mutilate or corrupt the primitive
apostolic records. In defending the true gospel of Luke against
the mutilated form of it employed by Marcion, he says: "I affirm
that not in the apostolic churches alone, but in all which are
joined with them in the bond of fellowship, that gospel of Luke
which we most firmly maintain, has been valid from its first
publication; but Marcion's gospel is unknown to most of them,
and known to none, except to be condemned." This testimony of
Tertullian is very important, as showing his full conviction
that Marcion could not deny the universal reception, from the
beginning, of the genuine gospel of Luke. And a little
afterwards he adds: "The same authority of the apostolic
churches will defend the other gospels also, which we have in
like manner through them, and according to them," (Against
Marcion, 4. 5.) Many more quotations of like purport might be
added.
_Clement of Alexandria_ was a pupil of Pantænus, and his
successor as head of the catechetical school at Alexandria in
Egypt. He was of heathen origin, born probably about the middle
of the second century, and died about A.D. 220. He had a
philosophical turn of mind, and after his conversion to
Christianity made extensive researches under various teachers,
as he himself tells us, in Greece, in Italy, in Palestine, and
other parts of the East. At last he met with Pantænus in Egypt,
whom he preferred to all his other guides, and in whose
instructions he rested. The testimony of Clement to the
universal and undisputed reception by the churches of the four
canonical gospels as the writings of apostles or apostolic men,
agrees with that of Tertullian. And it has the more weight, not
only on account of his wide investigations, but because, also,
it virtually contains the testimony of his several teachers,
some of whom must have known, if not the apostles themselves,
those who had listened to their teachings.
In connection with the testimony of the above-named writers, we
may consider that of the _churches of Lyons and Vienne_ in Gaul,
in a letter addressed by them to "the churches of Asia and
Phrygia," which Eusebius has preserved for us, (Hist. Eccl., 5.
1,) and which describes a severe persecution through which they
passed in the reign of Antoninus Verus, about A.D. 177. In this
they say: "So was fulfilled that which was spoken by our Lord,
'The time shall come in which whosoever killeth you shall think
that he doeth God service.'" In speaking again of a certain
youthful martyr, they first compare him to Zacharias, the father
of John the Baptist, affirming, in the very words of Luke, that
he "had walked in all the commandments and ordinances of the
Lord blameless," (Luke 1:6;) and then go on to describe him as
"having the Comforter in himself, the Spirit, more abundantly
than Zacharias," where they apply to the Holy Spirit a term
peculiar to the apostle John. Here, then, we have indubitable
testimony to the fact that the gospel of John, as well as of
Luke, was known to the churches of Gaul in the west and Asia
Minor in the east in the days of Pothinus, bishop of these
churches, who suffered martyrdom in this persecution. But
Pothinus was ninety years old, so that his knowledge of these
gospels must have reached back to the first quarter of the
second century, when many who had known the apostles were yet
living.
5. These testimonies, let it be carefully remembered, apply not to one
part of Christendom alone, but to all its different and distant
divisions; and that, too, long before there was any attempt to bring the
judgment of the churches into harmony by means of general councils. The
orthodox churches planted in the different provinces of the Roman
empire, though in substantial harmony with each other, had nevertheless
their minor differences, which were sometimes discussed with much
warmth. In their relation to each other, they were jealous of their
freedom and independence. The history of the so-called _Antilegomena_
(Disputed Books of the New Testament, chap. 6) shows that the reception
of a writing as apostolic in one division of Christendom, did not insure
its reception elsewhere. Had it been possible that a spurious book
should be imposed as genuine on the churches of one region, it would
certainly have met with opposition in other regions; but our four
canonical gospels were everywhere received without dispute as the
writings of apostles or apostolic men. This fact admits of but one
explanation: the churches had from their first appearance indubitable
evidence of their genuineness.
6. Let it be further remembered that this testimony relates not to books
of a private character, that might have lain for years hidden in some
corner; but to the _public writings_ of the churches, on which their
faith was founded, of which they all had copies, and which it was the
custom, from the apostolic age, to read in their assemblies along with
the law and the prophets. (Justin Martyr Apol., 1. 67.) Earnestness and
sincerity are traits which will not be denied to the primitive
Christians, and they were certainly not wanting in common discernment.
Let any man show, if he can, how a spurious gospel, suddenly appearing
somewhere after the apostolic days, could have been imposed upon the
churches as genuine, not only where it originated, but everywhere else
in Christendom. The difficulty with which some of the genuine books of
the New Testament gained universal currency sufficiently refutes such an
absurd supposition.
7. We are now prepared to consider the testimonies of an earlier period.
Here _Justin Martyr_ is a very weighty witness, since he lived so near
the apostolic age, and had every facility for investigating the history
of the gospel narratives. He was born near the beginning of the second
century, and his extant works date from about the middle of the same
century. Before his conversion to Christianity he was a heathen
philosopher earnestly seeking for the truth among the different systems
of the age. Of his undoubtedly genuine works, there remain to us two
Apologies (defences of Christianity) and a Dialogue with Trypho a Jew,
designed to defend the Christian religion against its Jewish opponents.
In these he quotes the gospel of Matthew very abundantly; next in number
are his quotations from Luke. His references to Mark and John are much
fewer, but enough to show his acquaintance with them. He never quotes
the evangelists by name, but designates their writings as "The Memoirs
of the Apostles;" and more fully, "The memoirs which I affirm to have
been composed by his"--our Lord's--"apostles and their followers,"
Dialog., ch. 103, "which," he elsewhere says, "are called gospels,"
Apol. 1. 66, and in a collective sense, "the gospel," Dialog., ch. 10.
It should be carefully noticed that he speaks in the plural number both
of the apostles who composed the gospels and their followers. This
description applies exactly to our canonical gospels--two written by
apostles, and two by their followers.
The attempt has been made in modern times to set aside Justin's
testimony, on the alleged ground that he quotes not from our
canonical gospels, but from some other writings. The
groundlessness of this supposition is manifest at first sight.
Justin had visited the three principal churches of Rome,
Alexandria, and Ephesus. It is certain that he knew what gospels
were received by them in his day as authentic, and that these
are the very gospels which he quotes, affirming that they were
the writings of apostles and their followers. Now, that the
gospels which Justin used should have been wholly supplanted by
others in the days of Irenæus, who was of full age at the time
of Justin's death, is incredible. But Irenæus, in common with
Clement, Tertullian, and others, quotes our four canonical
gospels as alone possessing apostolic authority, and as having
been always received by the churches. It follows that the
"Memoirs" of Justin must be the same gospels. We cannot conceive
that in this brief period an entire change of gospels should
have been made throughout all the different and distant
provinces of the Roman empire, at a time when concerted action
through general councils was unknown; and that, too, in so
silent a manner that no record of it remains in the history of
the church. The supposition that the gospels known to Justin
were different from those received by Irenæus ought not to be
entertained without irrefragable proof. But no such proof
exists. "An accurate examination in detail of his citations,"
says Semisch, Life of Justin Martyr, 4. 1, "has led to the
result that this title"--the Memoirs of the
Apostles--"designates the canonical gospels--a result in no way
less certain because again called in question in modern days."
The agreement of his quotations with our present gospels is of
such a character and extent as can be explained only from his
use of them. The variations are mainly due to his habit of
quoting loosely from memory. "Many of these citations," says
Kirchhofer, "agree, word for word, with the gospels; others with
the substance, but with alterations and additions of words, with
transpositions and omissions; others give the thought only in a
general way; others still condense together the contents of
several passages and different sayings, in which case the
historic quotations are yet more free, and blend together, in
part, the accounts of Matthew and Luke. But some quotations are
not found at all in our canonical gospels," (see immediately
below;) "some, on the contrary, occur twice or thrice."
Quellensammlung, p. 89. note. Two or three more important
variations are, perhaps, due to the readings in the manuscripts
employed by Justin, since the later church fathers, who, as we
know, employed the canonical gospels, give the same variations.
Finally, Justin gives a few incidents and sayings not recorded
in our present gospels. As he lived so near the apostolic times
he may well have received these from tradition; but if in any
case he took them from written documents, there is no proof that
he ascribed to such documents apostolic authority. In one
passage, he accurately distinguishes between what he gives from
tradition or other written sources, and what from the apostolic
records. "When Jesus came," he says, "to the river Jordan, where
John was baptizing, as he descended to the water, both was a
fire kindled in the Jordan, and as he ascended from the water,
the apostles of this very Christ of ours have written that the
Holy Spirit as a dove lighted upon him." Dial., ch. 88.
It has been doubted whether certain references to the _gospel of
John_ can be found in Justin's writings; but it seems plain that
the following is a free quotation from chapter 3:3-5: "For
Christ said, Except ye be born again, ye shall by no means enter
into the kingdom of heaven. But that it is impossible that they
who have once been born should enter into the wombs of those who
bare them is manifest to all." Apol. 1. 61. To affirm that a
passage so peculiar as this was borrowed by both the evangelist
John and Justin from a common tradition, is to substitute a very
improbable for a very natural explanation. Besides, Justin uses
phraseology peculiar to John, repeatedly calling our Saviour
"the Word of God," and "the Word made flesh;" affirming that he
"was in a peculiar sense begotten the only Son of God," "an only
begotten One to the Father of all things, being in a peculiar
sense begotten of him as Word and Power, and afterwards made man
through the Virgin;" and calling him "the good Rock that sends
forth (literally, causes to _bubble forth_--compare John 4:14)
living waters into the hearts of those who through him have
loved the Father of all things, and that gives to all who will
the water of life to drink." These and other references to John
may be seen in Kirchhofer's Quellensammlung, pp. 146, 147.
8. Another early witness is _Papias_, who was bishop of Hierapolis, in
Phrygia, in the first half of the second century. He wrote "An
Exposition of the Oracles of the Lord," in five books. This work has
perished; but fragments of it, with notices of its contents, are
preserved to us by Eusebius and other writers. As Papias, according to
his own express testimony, gathered his materials, if not from apostles
themselves, yet from their immediate disciples, his statements are
invested with great interest. Of Matthew he says, Eusebius Hist. Eccl.,
5. 39, that he "wrote the oracles in the Hebrew dialect, and every one
interpreted them as he could." He speaks of this interpretation by each
one as he could as something past, implying that in his day our present
Greek gospel of Matthew (of the apostolic authority of which there was
never any doubt in the early churches) was in circulation, whether it
was or was not originally composed in Hebrew, a question on which
learned men are not agreed. Of Mark he affirms that, "having become
Peter's interpreter, he wrote down accurately as many things as he
remembered; not recording in order the things that were said or done by
Christ, since he was not a hearer or follower of the Lord, but
afterwards"--after our Lord's ascension--"of Peter, who imparted his
teachings as occasion required, but not as making an orderly narrative
of the Lord's discourses." Hist. Eccl., 3. 39. The fact that Eusebius
gives no statement of Papias respecting the other two gospels is of
little account, since his notices of the authors to whom he refers, and
of their works, are confessedly imperfect.
Eusebius notices, for example, Hist. Eccl. 4. 14, the fact that
Polycarp, in his letter to the Philippians, "has used certain
testimonies from the First Epistle of Peter;" but says nothing
of his many references, in the same letter, to the epistles of
Paul, in some of which he quotes the apostle by name. We have,
nevertheless, through Eusebius, an indirect but valid testimony
from Papias to the authorship of the fourth gospel, resting upon
the admitted identity of the author of this gospel with the
author of the first of the epistles ascribed to John. Speaking
of Papias, Eusebius says: "But the same man used testimonies
from the First Epistle of John." Hist. Eccl., 3. 39, end. The
ascription to John of this epistle, is virtually the ascription
to him of the fourth gospel also. Eusebius speaks of Papias as a
man "of very small mind." The correctness of this judgment is
manifest from the specimens which he gives of his writings; but
it cannot invalidate the evidence we have from the above
passages of the existence, in Papias' day, of the gospels to
which he refers. As to the question whether these were our
present canonical gospels of Matthew and Mark, it is sufficient
to say that neither Eusebius nor any of the church fathers
understood them differently.
9. A very interesting relic of antiquity is the _Epistle to Diognetus_,
of which the authorship is uncertain. Its date cannot be later than the
age of Justin Martyr, to whom it is ascribed by some. It is,
notwithstanding some erroneous views, a noble defence of Christianity,
in which the author shows his acquaintance with the gospel of John by
the use of terms and phrases peculiar to him. Thus he calls Christ "the
Word," and "the only begotten Son," whom God sent to men. In the words,
"not to take thought about raiment and food," section 9, there is an
apparent reference to Matt. 6:25, 31.
In addition to the above testimonies might be adduced some fragments of
early Christian writers which have been preserved to us by those of a
later day; but for brevity's sake they are omitted.
10. Following up the stream of testimony, we come now to that of the
so-called _apostolic fathers_; that is, of men who were disciples of
apostles, and wrote in the age next following them. Holding, as they do,
such a near relation to the apostles, and familiar with the oral
traditions of the apostolic age, we cannot expect to find in them such
frequent and formal references to the books of the New Testament as
characterize the works of later writers. They quote, for the most part,
anonymously, interweaving with their own words those of the sacred
writers.
One of the earliest among the apostolic fathers is _Clement of
Rome_, who died about A.D. 100. Of the numerous writings
anciently ascribed to him, his First Epistle to the Corinthians
is admitted, upon good evidence, to be genuine. In this we find
words which imply a knowledge of the first three gospels. Citing
evidently from memory, in a loose way, he says: "For thus
he"--the Lord Jesus--"spake, 'Be merciful, that ye may obtain
mercy; forgive, that ye may be forgiven; as ye do, so shall it
be done to you; as ye give, so shall it be given to you; as ye
judge, so shall ye receive judgment; as ye are kind, so shall ye
receive kindness; with what measure ye measure, with that it
shall be measured to you.'" And again: "For he said, 'Woe unto
that man; it were better for him that he had not been born, than
that he should offend one of my elect.'"
_Ignatius_ was bishop of the church at Antioch, and suffered
martyrdom A.D. 107, or according to some accounts, 116. In his
epistles, which are received as genuine, are manifest quotations
from the gospel of Matthew, and some apparent though not
entirely certain allusions to the gospel of John.
_Polycarp_, bishop of Smyrna, was a disciple of the apostle
John. He suffered martyrdom about the year 166. Of his writings,
only one short epistle, addressed to the Philippians, remains to
us; but this abounds in references to the books of the New
Testament, especially the epistles of Paul. Of quotations from
the gospel of Matthew, the following are examples: "Judge not,
that ye be not judged; forgive, and ye shall be forgiven; be
merciful, that ye may obtain mercy; with what measure ye mete,
it shall be measured to you again." "Blessed are the poor in
spirit, and those that suffer persecution for righteousness'
sake, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven." "The spirit indeed
is willing, but the flesh is weak." For the gospel of John,
Polycarp's testimony, though indirect, is decisive. In his
letter to the Philippians, he quotes from the First Epistle of
John, "For every one who does not confess that Jesus Christ has
come in the flesh, is antichrist." 1 John 4:3. But that the
gospel of John and this first epistle both proceeded from the
same author, is a conceded fact.
The recently discovered Sinai Codex, the oldest known codex in
the world, contains the entire _Epistle of Barnabas_ in the
original Greek. In this we find, among other references to the
first three gospels, one to the _written_ gospel of Matthew of
the most decisive character: "Let us be mindful, therefore, lest
perchance we be found as it is written, 'Many are called, but
few are chosen.'" Matt. 20:16; 22:14. The form of quotation, "as
it is written," is employed by the writers of the New Testament
only of citations from Scripture. In these words the writer
places the gospel of Matthew in the same rank as the Scriptures
of the Old Testament. That he was the Barnabas mentioned in the
New Testament as the companion of Paul cannot be maintained; but
the composition of the epistle is assigned, with probability, to
the beginning of the second century, though some place it as
late as its close.
The testimony of other apocryphal writings of early date might
be adduced, but for the sake of brevity it is here omitted. It
may be seen in the essay of Tischendorf, already referred to.
11. A different class of witnesses will next be considered--the ancient
Syriac version, the old Latin version, and the Muratorian fragment on
the canon of the New Testament--all of which bear testimony to our
canonical gospels.
The ancient _Syriac_ version, commonly called the
Peshito--_simple_, that is, expressing simply the meaning of the
original, without allegorical additions and explanations, after
the manner of the Jewish Targums--is admitted by all to be of
very high antiquity. Learned men are agreed that this version
cannot well be referred to a later date than the close of the
second century, and some assign it to the middle of the second
century, at which time the Syrian churches were in a very
flourishing condition, and cannot well be supposed to have been
without a version of the Holy Scriptures. The Peshito contains
all the books of the New Testament, except the Second Epistle of
Peter, the Second and Third Epistles of John, the Epistle of
Jude, and the Apocalypse. It testifies to the existence of our
four gospels, not only when it was made, but at an earlier date;
since we must, in all probability, assume that some considerable
time elapsed after the composition, one by one, of the books of
the New Testament, before they were collected into a volume, as
in this Syriac version.
Respecting the _Old Latin_ version, (in distinction from
Jerome's revision, commonly called the _Vulgate_, which belongs
to the fourth century,) various opinions have been maintained.
Some have assumed the existence of several independent Latin
versions of the New Testament, or of some of its books; but the
preferable opinion is that there were various recensions, all
having for their foundation a single version, namely, the Old
Latin; which, says Westcott, Canon of the New Testament, ch. 3,
"can be traced back as far as the earliest records of Latin
Christianity. Every circumstance connected with it indicates the
most remote antiquity." It was current in north Africa, at least
soon after the middle of the second century. Though it has not
come down to us in a perfect form, it contains, along with most
of the other books of the New Testament, our four canonical
gospels; and its testimony is of the greatest weight.
The _Muratorian_ Fragment on the _Canon_ is the name given to a
Latin fragment discovered by the Italian scholar, Muratori, in
the Ambrosian Library at Milan, in a manuscript bearing the
marks of great antiquity. Its date is determined by its
reference to the shepherd of Hermas, which, says the Fragment,
Hermas "wrote very recently in our times, while the bishop Pius,
his brother, occupied the chair of the church at Rome." The
later of the two dates given for the death of Pius is A.D. 157.
The composition of the Fragment must have followed soon
afterwards. Though mutilated at the beginning, as well as the
end, its testimony to the existence of the _four_ canonical
gospels is decisive. In its present form, it opens with the end
of a sentence, the beginning of which is lost. It then goes on
to say, "_The third gospel according to Luke_." After mentioning
various particulars concerning Luke, as that he was a physician
whom Paul had taken with him, that he did not himself see the
Lord in the flesh, etc., it adds, "_The fourth of the gospels,
that of John, of the number of the disciples_," to which it
appends a traditional account of the circumstances of its
composition. With the truth or falsehood of this account we have
at present no concern; the important fact is that this very
ancient canon recognizes the existence of our four canonical
gospels.
12. The heretical sects of the second century furnish testimony to the
genuineness of our canonical gospels which is of the most weighty and
decisive character. Though some of them rejected certain books of the
New Testament and mutilated others, it was on doctrinal, not on critical
grounds. Had they attempted to disprove on historic grounds the
genuineness of the rejected portions of Scripture, it is certain that
the church fathers, who wrote against them at such length, would have
noticed their arguments. The fact that they did not, is conclusive proof
that no such attempt was made; but from the position which the leaders
of these heretical sects occupied, it is certain that, could the
genuineness of the canonical gospels, or any one of them, have been
denied on historic grounds, the denial would have been made.
_Marcion_, one of the most distinguished leaders of those who
separated themselves from the orthodox church, came to Rome in
the second quarter of the second century. He separated
Christianity from all connection with Judaism, making the
Jehovah of the Old Testament a different being from the God of
the New Testament. His gospel, called by the ancients the gospel
of Marcion, is admitted to have been a mutilated copy of Luke's
gospel. Of course it became necessary that he should reject the
first two chapters of this gospel, (which alone he received,)
since they contain our Lord's genealogy in the line of Abraham
and David, and should otherwise alter it to suit his views. On
the same grounds, he altered the epistles of Paul also. That
Marcion was not ignorant of the other three gospels, but
rejected them, is plain from the words of Tertullian, who
accuses him, Against Marcion, 4. 3, of attempting "to destroy
the credit of those gospels which are properly such, and are
published under the name of apostles, or also of apostolic men;
that he may invest his own gospel with the confidence which he
withdraws from them." His real ground for rejecting some books
of the New Testament and mutilating others was that _he_ could
judge better of the truth than the writers themselves, whom he
represented to have been misled by the influences of Jewish
prejudices. Accordingly Irenæus well says of the liberties taken
by Marcion, Against Heresies, 1. 27: "He persuaded his disciples
that he was himself more trustworthy than the apostles who have
delivered to us the gospel; while he gave to them not the
gospel, but a fragment of the gospel."
A distinguished leader of the Gnostics was _Valentinus_, who
came to Rome about A.D. 140, and continued there till the time
of Anicetus. His testimony and that of his followers is, if
possible, more weighty than even that of Marcion. His method,
according to the testimony of Tertullian, was not to reject and
mutilate the Scriptures, but to pervert their meaning by false
interpretations. Tertullian says, Against Heretics, ch. 38: "For
though Valentinus seems to use the entire instrument, he has
done violence to the truth with a more artful mind than
Marcion." "The entire instrument"--Latin, _integro
instrumento_--includes our four canonical gospels. Clement of
Alexandria and Hippolytus have preserved quotations from
Valentinus in which he refers to the gospels of Matthew, Luke,
and John. See Westcott, Canon of the New Testament, 4. 5.
Respecting the gospel of John in particular, Irenæus says,
Against Heresies, 3. 11, that "the Valentinians make the most
abundant use of it." Heracleon, whom Origen represents as having
been a familiar friend of Valentinus, wrote a commentary on
John, from which Origen frequently quotes; but if Valentinus and
his followers, in the second quarter of the second century, used
"the entire instrument," they must have found its apostolic
authority established upon a firm foundation before their day.
This carries us back to the age immediately succeeding that of
the apostles, when Polycarp and others who had known them
personally were yet living. The testimony of the Valentinians,
then, is of the most decisive character.
Another prominent man among the heretical writers was _Tatian_,
a contemporary and pupil of Justin Martyr, who, according to the
testimony of Eusebius, Epiphanius, and Theodoret, composed a
_Diatessaron_, that is, a _four-fold gospel_; which can be
understood only as a harmony of the four gospels which, as has
been shown, were used by Justin; or of such parts of these
gospels as suited his purpose; for Tatian, like Marcion, omitted
all that relates to our Lord's human descent. With this
Diatessaron, Theodoret was well acquainted; for he found among
his churches more than two hundred copies, which he caused to be
removed, and their places supplied by the four canonical
gospels.
As to other gospels of the second century, which are
occasionally mentioned by later writers, as "The Gospel of
Truth," "The Gospel of Basilides," etc., there is no evidence
that they professed to be connected histories of our Lord's life
and teachings. They were rather, as Norton has shown,
Genuineness of the Gospels, vol. 3, chap. 4, doctrinal works
embodying the views of the sectaries that used them.
13. We have seen how full and satisfactory is the external evidence for
our four canonical gospels. Considering how scanty are the remains of
Christian writings that have come down to us from the first half of the
same century, we have all the external evidence for that period also
that could be reasonably demanded, and it is met by no rebutting
testimony that rests on historic grounds. The authorship of no ancient
classical work is sustained by a mass of evidence so great and varied,
and the candid mind can rest in it with entire satisfaction.
III. _Internal Evidences._ 14. Here we may begin with considering the
relation of the first three gospels to the last, in respect to both time
of composition and character.
And first, with respect to _time_. The first three gospels--frequently
called the _synoptical_ gospels, or the _synoptics_, because from the
general similarity of their plan and materials their contents are
capable of being summed up in a synopsis--record our Lord's prophecy of
the overthrow of Jerusalem. The three records of this prediction wear
throughout the costume of a true prophecy, not of a prophecy written
after the event. They are occupied, almost exclusively, with the various
_signs_ by which the approach of that great catastrophe might be known,
and with admonitions to the disciples to hold themselves in readiness
for it. Matthew, for example, devotes fifty verses to the account of the
prophecy and the admonitions connected with it. Of these, only four,
chap. 24:19-22, describe the calamities of the scene, and that in the
most general terms. Now, upon the supposition that the evangelist wrote
before the event, all this is natural. Our Lord's design in uttering the
prophecy was not to gratify the idle curiosity of the disciples, but to
warn them beforehand in such a way that they might escape the horrors of
the impending catastrophe. He dwelt, therefore, mainly on the signs of
its approach; and with these, as having a chief interest for the
readers, the record of the prediction is mostly occupied. It is
impossible, on the other hand, to conceive that one who wrote years
after the destruction of the city and temple should not have dwelt in
more detail on the bloody scenes connected with their overthrow, and
have given in other ways also a historic coloring to his account. We may
safely say that to write a prophecy after the event in such a form as
that which we have in either of the first three gospels, transcends the
power of any uninspired man; and as to inspired narratives, the
objectors with whom we are now dealing deny them altogether.
But there are, in the record of this prophecy, some special indications
of the time when the evangelists wrote. According to Matthew, the
disciples asked, ver. 3: "When shall these things"--the destruction of
the buildings of the temple--"be? and what shall be the sign of thy
coming and of the end of the world?" These questions our Lord proceeded
to answer in such a way that the impression on the minds of the hearers
(to be rectified only by the course of future events) must have been
that the overthrow of the temple and city would be connected with his
second coming and the end of the world. "Immediately after the
tribulation of those days," says Matthew, "shall the sun be darkened,"
etc. The probable explanation of this peculiar form of the prophecy is
that it does actually include all three events; the fulfilment which it
had in the destruction of the city and temple by the Romans being only
an earnest of a higher fulfilment hereafter. But however this may be, it
is important to notice that the evangelists, in their record of the
prophecy, are evidently unconscious of any discrepancy, real or
apparent, that needs explanation; which could not have been the case had
they written years after the event predicted. "It may be safely held,"
says Professor Fisher, Supernatural Origin of Christianity, p. 172,
"that had the evangelist been writing at a later time, some explanation
would have been thrown in to remove the _seeming_ discrepancy between
prophecy and fulfilment."
It should be further noticed that the evangelists Matthew and Mark, in
reference to "the abomination of desolation" standing in the holy place,
throw in the admonitory words, "Let him that readeth understand." These
are not the Saviour's words, but those of the narrators calling the
attention of believers to a most important sign requiring their
immediate flight to the mountains. Before the overthrow of the city
these words had a weighty office; after its overthrow they would have
been utterly superfluous. Their presence in such a connection is proof
that the record was written before the event to which it refers.
Admitting the genuineness and authenticity of the book of Acts, (which
will be considered hereafter,) we have a special proof of the early
composition of the gospel according to Luke. The book of Acts ends
abruptly with Paul's two years residence at Rome, which brings us down
to A.D. 65, five years before the destruction of Jerusalem. The only
natural explanation of this fact is that here the composition of the
book of Acts was brought to a close. The date of the gospel which
preceded, Acts 1:1, must therefore be placed still earlier.
If, now, we examine the gospel of John, we find its internal character
agreeing with the ancient tradition that it was written at Ephesus late
in the apostle's life. That it was composed at a distance from Judea, in
a Gentile region, is manifest from his careful explanation of Jewish
terms and usages, which among his countrymen would have needed no
explanation. No man writing in Judea, or among the Galileans who
habitually attended the national feasts at Jerusalem, would have said,
"And the passover, a feast of the Jews, was nigh," 6:4; "Now the Jews'
feast of tabernacles was at hand," 7:2, etc. The absence of all
reference to the overthrow of the Jewish polity, civil and
ecclesiastical, may be naturally explained upon the supposition that the
apostle wrote some years after that event, when his mind had now become
familiar with the great truth that the Mosaic institutions had forever
passed away to make room for the universal dispensation of Christianity;
and that he wrote, too, among Gentiles for whom the abolition of these
institutions had no special interest. In general style and spirit,
moreover, the gospel of John is closely allied to his first epistle, and
cannot well be separated from it by a great interval of time; but the
epistle undoubtedly belongs to a later period of the apostle's life.
From the language of John, chap. 5:2, "Now there _is_ at
Jerusalem, by the sheep-gate, a pool, which is called in the
Hebrew tongue, Bethesda, _having_ five porches,"--it has been
argued that, when John wrote, the city must have been still
standing. But Eusebius speaks of the pool as remaining in his
day, and why may not the porches, as useful to the Roman
conquerors, have been preserved, at least for a season?
We have seen the relation of John's gospel to the other three in respect
to time. It must have been written several years later than the last of
them; perhaps not less than fifteen years. If, now, we look to its
relation in regard to _character_, we must say that it differs from them
as widely as it well could while presenting to our view the same divine
and loving Saviour. Its general plan is different. For reasons not known
to us, the synoptical gospels are mainly occupied with our Lord's
ministry in Galilee. They record only his last journey to Jerusalem, and
the momentous incidents connected with it. John, on the contrary,
notices his visits to Jerusalem year by year. Hence his materials are,
to a great extent, different from theirs; and even where he records the
same events--as, for example, the miracle of the loaves and fishes, and
the last supper--he connects with them long discourses, which the other
evangelists have omitted. Particularly noticeable are our Lord's
oft-repeated discussions with the unbelieving Jews respecting his
Messiahship, and his confidential intercourse with his disciples, in
both of which we have such treasures of divine truth and love. How
strikingly this gospel differs from the others in its general style and
manner every reader feels at once. It bears throughout the impress of
John's individuality, and by this it is immediately connected with the
epistles that bear his name. It should be added that in respect to the
time when our Lord ate the passover with his disciples there is an
apparent disagreement with the other three gospels, which the harmonists
have explained in various ways.
The essential point of the above comparison is this: Notwithstanding the
striking difference between the later fourth gospel and the earlier
three, it was at once received by all the churches as of apostolic
authority. Now upon the supposition of its genuineness, both its
peculiar character and its undisputed reception everywhere are easily
explained. John, the bosom disciple of our Lord, wrote with the full
consciousness of his apostolic authority and his competency as a witness
of what he had himself seen and heard. He therefore gave his testimony
in his own independent and original way. How far he may have been
influenced in his selection of materials by a purpose to supply what was
wanting in the earlier gospels, according to an old tradition, it is not
necessary here to inquire; it is sufficient to say that, under the
illumination of the Holy Spirit, he marked out that particular plan
which we have in his gospel, and carried it out in his own peculiar
manner, thus opening to the churches new mines, so to speak, of the
inexhaustible fulness of truth and love contained in him in whom
"dwelleth all the fulness of the godhead bodily." And when this original
gospel, so different in its general plan and style from those that
preceded, made its appearance, the apostolic authority of its author
secured its immediate and universal reception by the churches. All this
is very plain and intelligible.
But upon the supposition that the gospel of John is a spurious
production of the age succeeding that of the apostles, let any one
explain, if he can, how it could have obtained universal and
unquestioned apostolic authority. Its very difference from the earlier
gospels must have provoked inquiry and examination, and these must have
led to its rejection, especially at a time when some who had known the
apostle yet survived; and no one now pretends to assign to it a later
period.
15. We will next consider the relation of the first three gospels to
each other. Here we have remarkable agreements with remarkable
differences. The general plan of all three is the same. It is manifest
also, at first sight, that there lies at the foundation of each a basis
of common matter--common not in substance alone, but to a great extent
in form also. Equally manifest is it that the three evangelists write
independently of each other. Matthew, for example, did not draw his
materials from Luke; for there is his genealogy of our Lord, and his
full account of the sermon on the mount, not to mention other
particulars. Nor did Luke take his materials from Matthew; for there is
his genealogy also, with large sections of matter peculiar to himself.
Mark has but little matter that is absolutely new; but where he and the
other two evangelists record the same events, if one compares his
narratives with theirs, he finds numerous little incidents peculiar to
this gospel woven into them in a very vivid and graphic manner. They
come in also in the most natural and artless way, as might be expected
from one who, if not himself an eye-witness, received his information
immediately from eye-witnesses. The three writers, moreover, do not
always agree as to the order in which they record events; yet,
notwithstanding the diversities which they exhibit, they were all
received from the first as of equal authority.
The natural explanation of this is that all three wrote in the apostolic
age, and consequently had access, each of them independently of the
other two, to the most authentic sources of information. These sources
(so far as the evangelists were not themselves eye-witnesses) lay
partly, perhaps, in written documents like those referred to by Luke,
1:1, partly in the unwritten traditions current in the apostolic
churches, and partly in personal inquiry from eye-witnesses, especially,
in the case of Mark and Luke, from apostles themselves. From these
materials each selected as suited his purposes, and the churches
everywhere unhesitatingly received each of the three gospels,
notwithstanding the above-named variations between them, because they
had undoubted evidence of their apostolic authority. We cannot suppose
that after the apostolic age three gospels, bearing to each other the
relation which these do, could have been imposed upon the churches as
all of them equally authentic. We know from the history of Marcion's
gospel how fully alive they were to the character of their sacred
records. On apostolic authority they could receive--to mention a single
example--both Matthew's and Luke's account of our Lord's genealogy; but
it is certain that they would not have received the two on the authority
of men who lived after the apostolic age.
16. In the gospel narratives are numerous incidental allusions to
passing events without the proper sphere of our Lord's labors, to social
customs, and to the present posture of public affairs, civil and
ecclesiastical. In all these the severest scrutiny has been able to
detect _no trace of a later age_. This is a weighty testimony to the
apostolic origin of the gospels. Had their authors lived in a later age,
the fact must have manifested itself in some of these references. The
most artless writer can allude in a natural and truthful way to present
events, usages, and circumstances; but it transcends the power of the
most skilful author to multiply incidental and minute references to a
past age without betraying the fact that he does not belong to it.
17. Every age has, also, its peculiar impress of thought and reasoning
in religious, not less than in secular matters. Although the gospel
itself remains always the same, and those who sincerely embrace it have
also substantially the same character from age to age, there is,
nevertheless, continual progress and change in men's apprehension of the
gospel and its institutions, and consequently in their manner of
reasoning concerning them. No man, for example, could write a treatise
on Christianity at the present day without making it manifest that he
did not belong to the first quarter of the present century. The
primitive age of Christianity is no exception to this universal law.
Under the auspices of the apostles it began to move forward, and it
continued to move after their decease. The pastoral epistles of Paul
bear internal marks of having been written in the later period of his
life, because they are adapted to the state of the Christian church and
its institutions that belonged to that, and not to an earlier period.
If, now, we examine the writings of the so-called apostolic
fathers--disciples of the apostles, who wrote after their death--we find
in them circles of thought and reasoning not belonging to the canonical
writings of the New Testament, least of all to the canonical gospels,
though they are evidently derived from hints contained in these
writings, whether rightly or wrongly apprehended. In this respect, the
works of the apostolic fathers are distinguished in a very marked way
from those which bear the names of the apostles themselves or their
associates.
18. Another decisive argument lies in the _character of the Greek_
employed by the evangelists, in common with the other writers of the New
Testament. It is the Greek language employed by Jews, (or, in the case
of Luke, if his Jewish origin be doubted--see Col. 4:11, 16--by one who
had received a Jewish training under the influence of the Greek version
of the Old Testament,) and therefore pervaded and colored by Hebrew
idioms. This peculiar form of the Greek language belongs to the
apostolic age, when the teachers and writers of the church were Jews.
After the overthrow of Jerusalem, the dispersion of the Jewish nation,
and the death of the apostles and their associates, it rapidly
disappeared. Thenceforward the writers of the church were of Gentile
origin and training, in accordance with the Saviour's memorable words:
"The kingdom of God shall be taken from you, and given to a nation
bringing forth the fruits thereof."
These internal proofs, coinciding as they do with a mass of external
evidences so great and varied, place the genuineness of the four
canonical gospels on a foundation that cannot be shaken.
CHAPTER III.
UNCORRUPT PRESERVATION OF THE GOSPEL NARRATIVES.
1. It is necessary, first of all, to define what is meant in the present
connection by the uncorrupt preservation of the gospel narratives. When
a man, whose business it is to examine and compare manuscripts or
editions of a work, speaks of a given text as corrupt, he means one
thing; in a question concerning the truth of the Christian system as
given in the writings of the New Testament, a corrupt text means
something very different. The collator of manuscripts understands by a
corrupt text one that has been marred by the carelessness or bad
judgment of transcribers, whence have arisen so many "various readings,"
though these do not change, or essentially obscure the facts and
doctrines of Christianity, as has been most conclusively shown by the
results of modern textual criticism; but in an inquiry whether we have
in our canonical gospels the account of our Lord's life and teachings as
it was originally written by the evangelists in all essential
particulars, we have to do with the question, not of various readings,
such as are incident to all manuscripts, but of essential additions,
alterations, or mutilations--like those, for example, which Marcion
attempted--by which the facts and doctrines themselves are changed or
obscured. It is against the charge of such essential corruptions that we
maintain the integrity of the text in the gospels, as in the other books
of the New Testament.
2. The most important materials for writing in ancient times were the
paper made of the Egyptian _papyrus_ plant--whence the word _paper_--and
_parchment_, prepared from the skins of animals, the finer kinds of
which are called _vellum_. Both are of high antiquity. The use of the
above-mentioned paper was very common in the apostolic age; and from an
incidental notice in the New Testament, (2 John 12 compared with 3 John
13,) it appears to have been the material employed by the apostles
themselves. But the use of parchment became more common in the following
centuries, while that of papyrus-paper gradually ceased. To this
circumstance we owe, in a great measure, the preservation of our oldest
manuscripts; for the papyrus-paper was of a very perishable nature, and
the manuscripts written upon it that have come down to us from high
antiquity have been kept in specially favorable circumstances, as, for
example, in the ancient Egyptian tombs. With the disuse of papyrus-paper
ceased also the ancient form of the roll. All manuscripts written on
parchment are in the form of books with leaves. From about the eleventh
century, paper made from cotton or linen came into common use.
The costliness of writing materials gave rise to a peculiar usage. From
the leaves of an ancient work the original writing was erased, more or
less perfectly. They were then employed as the material for another
work, the latter being written over the former. Such manuscripts are
called _palimpsests_--_written again_ after erasure. The original
writing, which is very often the sacred text, can in general be
deciphered, especially by the aid of certain chemical applications. Some
of our most precious manuscripts are of this character.
The existing manuscripts of the New Testament are of two kinds. _First_,
the _uncial_, that is, those written in capital letters. Here belong all
the most ancient and valuable. The writing is generally in columns, from
two to four to a page; sometimes in a single column. There is no
division of the text into words; the marks of interpunction are few and
simple; and till the seventh century there were no accents, and
breathings only in special cases. _Secondly_, the _cursive_, or those
written in running-hand, with division of the text into words, capitals
only for initial letters, accents, breathings, etc., and often with many
contractions. This is the common form of manuscripts after the tenth
century, the uncial being retained for some ages afterwards only in
books designed for use in the church service. In both the uncial and the
cursive manuscripts, each century has its peculiar style of writing.
From this, as well as from the quality of the materials, expert judges
can determine the age of a given manuscript with a good degree of
accuracy.
The details pertaining to the form of ancient manuscripts, their
number, character, etc., belong to the department of textual
criticism. The above brief notices are given to prepare the way
for a statement of the evidence that we have the gospel
narratives, as also the other books of the New Testament,
without corruption in the form in which they were originally
written. _See the PLATES at the beginning of this book._
3. Of the autograph manuscripts proceeding immediately from the inspired
authors we find no trace after the apostolic age. Here, as elsewhere,
the wisdom of God has carefully guarded the church against a
superstitious veneration for the merely outward instruments of
redemption. We do not need the wood of the true cross that we may have
redemption through the blood of Christ; nor do we need the identical
manuscripts that proceeded from the apostles and their companions, since
we have the contents of these manuscripts handed down to us without
corruption in any essential particular. This appears from various
considerations.
_First._ Several hundred manuscripts of the gospels, or of portions of
them, (to confine our attention at present to these,) have been
examined, two of them belonging to the fourth century and two, with some
fragments, to the fifth. All these, though written in different
centuries and coming from widely different regions, contain essentially
the same text. In them, not one of the great facts or doctrines of the
gospel history is mutilated or obscured.
_Secondly._ The quotations of the church fathers from the last part of
the second to the end of the fourth century are so copious, that from
them almost the entire text of our present gospels could be
reconstructed. These quotations agree substantially with each other and
with the text of our existing manuscripts; only that the earlier
fathers, as already noticed, chap. 2. 3, often quote loosely from
memory, blend together different narratives, and interweave with the
words of Scripture their own explanatory remarks.
_Thirdly._ We have two _versions_ of the New Testament--the Old Latin or
Italic, and the Syriac called Peshito--which learned men are agreed in
placing somewhere in the last half of the second century. The testimony
of these witnesses to the uncorrupt preservation of the sacred text,
from the time when they first appeared to the present, is decisive; for
they also agree essentially with the Greek text of the gospel as we now
possess it. Nor is this all. Davidson affirms of the Old Latin version,
that "the more ancient the Greek manuscripts, the closer is their
agreement with it." And Tischendorf says of the oldest known manuscript
of the Bible--the Greek Sinai Codex, brought by him from the convent of
St. Catharine, Mount Sinai, in 1859--that its agreement, in the New
Testament portion, with the Old Latin version, is remarkable. Through
the joint testimony, then, on the one hand, of the most ancient Greek
manuscripts, especially the Sinai Codex, which is the oldest of them
all; and on the other, of the Old Latin version which belongs to the
last half of the second century, we are carried back to a very ancient
and pure form of the Greek text prevalent before the execution of this
version, that is, about the middle of the second century. Tischendorf
adds arguments to show that the Syriac Peshito version, the text of
which has not come down to us in so pure a state, had for its basis
substantially the same form of text as the Old Latin and the Sinai
Codex.
The substantial identity of the sacred text, as we now have it,
with that which has existed since about the middle of the second
century, is thus shown to be a matter not of probable
conjecture, but of certain knowledge. Here, then, we have a sure
criterion by which to measure and interpret the complaints which
textual critics, ancient or modern, have made, sometimes in very
strong language, concerning the corruptions that have found
their way into the text of the New Testament. These writers have
reference to what are called "various readings," not to
mutilations and alterations, such as those charged by the
ancients upon Marcion, by which he sought to change the facts
and doctrines of the gospel. That this must be their meaning we
know; for there are the manuscripts by hundreds as witnesses,
all of which, the most corrupt as textual critics would call
them, as well as the purest, give in the gospel narratives the
same facts and doctrines without essential variation.
Let not the inexperienced inquirer be misled into any wrong
conclusion by the number of "various readings," amounting to
many thousands, which textual criticism has brought to light.
The greater the number of manuscripts collated, the greater will
be the number of these readings; while, at the same time, we are
continually making a nearer approach to the purity of the
primitive text. As a general rule these variations relate to
trifling particulars; as, for example, whether the conjunction
_and_ shall be inserted or omitted; whether _but_ or _for_ is
the true reading; whether this or that order of words giving the
same sense shall have the preference, etc. A few of the
variations are of a more important character. Thus, in John
1:18, some manuscripts and fathers instead of _only begotten
Son_, read _only begotten God_. But even here we may decide
either way without changing or obscuring the great truths of the
gospel narratives; for these are not dependent on particular
words or phrases, but pervade and vivify the New Testament, as
the vital blood does the body. The same may be said of certain
passages which, on purely critical grounds--that is, the
authority of ancient manuscripts--some have thought doubtful;
as, for example, John 5:4, and the narrative recorded in the
beginning of the eighth chapter of the same gospel. The
insertion or omission of the passages concerning which any
reasonable doubts can be entertained on critical grounds, will
not affect in the least the great truths of the gospel
narratives.
4. But it may be asked, Was the text from which the Old Latin version
was made, and with which, as we have seen, the oldest manuscripts have a
close agreement, substantially the same as that which proceeded from the
inspired authors? Here we must discard all groundless suppositions, and
adhere strictly to the known facts in the premises.
The first fact to be noticed is the public reading of the gospels in the
Christian churches, a custom which prevailed from the earliest times.
Justin Martyr, writing before the middle of the second century, says of
the memoirs written by the apostles or their followers and called
gospels (which have been shown to be our canonical gospels, chap. 2:7)
that either these or the writings of the Jewish prophets were read in
the Christian churches on the first day of every week. This is a fact of
the highest importance; for it shows that the witnesses and guardians of
the sacred text were not a few individuals, but the great body of
believers, and that no systematic corruption of their contents could
have taken place without their knowledge and consent, which would never
have been given.
Intimately connected with the above is a second fact, that of the great
multiplication of copies of the books of the New Testament, especially
of the gospel narratives, since these contain the great facts that lie
at the foundation of the Christian system. Every church would, as a
matter of course, be anxious to possess a copy, and Christians who
possessed the requisite means would furnish themselves with additional
copies for their own private use. If, now, we suppose one or more of
these copies to have been essentially changed, the corruption would not,
as in the case of a printed work, extend to many hundreds of copies. It
would be confined to the manuscript or manuscripts into which it had
been introduced and the copies made therefrom, while the numerous
uncorrupt copies would remain as witnesses of the fraud; for the
supposition of a very early corruption during the apostolic age, before
copies of the gospels had been to any considerable extent multiplied, is
utterly absurd.
A third fact is the high value attached by the primitive churches to the
gospel narratives, and their consequent zeal for their uncorrupt
preservation. No one will deny to them the qualities of earnestness and
sincerity. To them the gospels were the record of their redemption
through the blood of Christ. For the truths contained in them they
steadfastly endured persecution in every form, and death itself. Could
we even suppose, contrary to evidence, that private transcribers altered
at pleasure their copies of the gospels, it is certain that the churches
would never have allowed their public copies to be tampered with. The
resistance which Marcion met with in his attempt to alter the sacred
text, shows how watchful was their jealousy for its uncorrupt
preservation.
A still further fact is the want of time for essential corruptions, like
those now under consideration. That such corruptions could have taken
place during the apostolic age, no one will maintain. Equally certain is
it that they could not have happened during the age next succeeding,
while many presbyters and private Christians yet survived who had
listened to the apostles, and knew the history of the gospels written by
them or their companions. But this brings us down into the first part of
the second century.
Leaving out of view the apostle John, who probably died near the close
of the first century, and assuming the martyrdom of Peter and Paul to
have taken place somewhere between A.D. 64 and 67, we may place the
beginning of the age now under consideration at A.D. 65. Of the numerous
Christians who were then thirty years or less of age many must have
survived till A.D. 110, and even later. Polycarp, a disciple of John,
suffered martyrdom A.D. 167, and doubtless many others of his hearers
survived till the middle of the second century. The time, then, during
which such a corruption as that now under consideration can be supposed
to have taken place is so narrowed down that it amounts to well-nigh
nothing; and it is, moreover, the very time during which Justin Martyr
wrote his Apologies, and Marcion made his unsuccessful attempt to
mutilate the gospel history.
Finally, no evidence exists that the text of the gospel narratives has
been essentially corrupted. Of Marcion's abortive attempt we have
abundant notices in the writings of the early fathers. Their silence in
respect to other like attempts is conclusive proof that they were never
made. Had we the autographs of the evangelists, we should, with reason,
attach to them a high value; but there is no ground for supposing that
their text would differ in any essential particular from that which we
now possess. They would present to our view the same Saviour and the
same gospel.
5. What has been said respecting the uncorrupt preservation of the
gospel narratives applies essentially to the other books of the New
Testament; so that in the consideration of them the above arguments will
not need to be repeated.
CHAPTER IV.
AUTHENTICITY AND CREDIBILITY OF THE GOSPEL NARRATIVES.
1. The genuineness and uncorrupt preservation of our four canonical
gospels having been established, the presumption in favor of their
authenticity and credibility is exceedingly strong. In truth, few can be
found who, admitting their apostolic origin in essentially their present
form, will venture to deny that they contain an authentic and reliable
record of facts. We may dismiss at once the modern theory which converts
the gospels into myths--pure ideas embodied in allegorical narratives
which have no historic foundation. Myths do not turn the world upside
down, as did the preaching of Christ and his apostles. Myths do not
inspire the souls of men and women by thousands and tens of thousands
with heroic zeal and courage, enabling them steadfastly to endure
persecution and death for the truth's sake. It was love towards a
crucified and risen Saviour in deed and in truth, not towards the
mythical idea of such a Saviour, that made the primitive Christians
victorious alike over inward sinful affection and outward persecution.
To every one who reads the gospel narratives in the exercise of his
sober judgment, it is manifest that they are intended to be plain
unvarnished statements of facts. The question is, Are these statements
reliable? Here new arguments can hardly be expected; the old are
abundantly sufficient. Reserving for another place those general
arguments which apply to the gospel system as a whole, let us here
briefly consider the character of the authors and their records; of the
events which they record with the surrounding circumstances; and
especially of Jesus, their great theme.
2. It is natural to ask, in the first place, Were these men _sincere and
truthful_? Here we need not long delay. Their sincerity, with that of
their contemporaries who received their narratives as true, shines forth
like the sun in the firmament. With reference to them, the Saviour's
argument applies in all its force: "How can Satan cast out Satan?" "If
Satan rise up against himself, and be divided, he cannot stand, but hath
an end." The life-long work of the evangelists and their associates was
to cast out of the world all fraud and falsehood. If now they attempted
to do this by the perpetration of a most astounding fraud, we have the
case of Satan casting out Satan. But we need not argue the matter at
length. By what they did and suffered in behalf of their doctrines, as
well as by the artless simplicity of their narratives, they give full
proof of their sincerity and truthfulness.
3. We next inquire: Were they _competent as men_? that is, were they men
of sober judgment, able correctly to see and record the facts that came
under their observation, and not visionary enthusiasts who mistook
dreams for realities? This question admits of a short and satisfactory
answer. No proof whatever exists that they were visionary men, but
abundant proof to the contrary. Their narratives are calm,
unimpassioned, and straightforward, without expatiation on the greatness
of Christ's character and works and the wickedness of his enemies, as is
the way of all excited enthusiasts. What Paul said to Festus applies in
its full force to them and their writings: "I am not mad, most noble
Festus, but speak forth the words of truth and soberness." If any one
will condemn them as visionary, it must be on the sole ground that all
belief in the supernatural is visionary--a position that will be noticed
hereafter.
4. A further inquiry is, Were these men _competent as witnesses_? that
is, had they the requisite means of knowing the facts which they record?
With regard to the apostles Matthew and John, this matter need not be
argued. With regard to the other two, Luke states very fairly the
position which they occupied: "It seemed good to me also, having had
perfect understanding of all things," ("having accurately traced out all
things," as the original signifies,) "from the very beginning, to write
to thee, in order," etc. Luke had in abundance the means of accurately
tracing out all things relating to our Lord's life and works, for he was
the companion of apostles and others who "from the beginning were
eye-witnesses and ministers of the word;" and from them, according to
his own statement, he drew his information. The same is true of Mark
also.
5. We come now to consider the _character of the works_ which they
record, and the circumstances in which they were performed. Here it may
be remarked in the outset that it is not necessary to examine in detail
all the miracles recorded in the gospel history. Though they all
proceeded alike from the direct agency of God, they are not all alike
open to human inspection. If upon examination we find the supernatural
origin of many of them raised above all possibility of doubt, it is a
legitimate inference that the rest of them had the same divine origin.
Not to insist then upon the miracles ascribed to our Lord within the
sphere of inanimate nature, such as the conversion of water into wine,
the feeding of many thousands with a few loaves and fishes, and walking
upon the sea, all of which were done in such circumstances that there is
no room for questioning their reality, let us examine some that were
performed upon the persons of men. Palsy, dropsy, withered limbs,
blindness, the want of hearing and speech, leprosy, confirmed
lunacy--all these were as well known in their outward symptoms eighteen
hundred years ago as they are to-day. Persons could not be afflicted
with such maladies in a corner. The neighbors must have known then, as
they do now, the particulars of such cases, and have been
unexceptionable witnesses to their reality. Persons may feign blindness
and other infirmities among strangers, but no man can pass himself off
as palsied, deaf and dumb, blind, (especially blind from birth,) halt,
withered, in his own community. The reality of the maladies then is
beyond all question; and so is also the reality of their instantaneous
removal by the immediate power of the Saviour. Here we must not fail to
take into account the immense number of our Lord's miracles, their
diversified character, and the fact that they were performed everywhere,
as well without as with previous notice, and in the most open and public
manner. Modern pretenders to miraculous power have a select circle of
marvellous feats, the exhibition of which is restricted to particular
places. No one of them would venture to undertake the cure of a man born
blind, or that had a withered limb, or that had been a paralytic for
thirty-eight years. But Jesus of Nazareth went about the cities and
villages of Judea for the space of three years, healing all manner of
disease. With him there was no distinction of easy and difficult, since
to Divine power nothing is hard. With the same word he rebuked a raging
fever, cleansed from leprosy, gave strength to the paralytic, healed the
withered limb, gave sight to the blind, hearing to the deaf, and speech
to the dumb, and raised the dead to life. The same voice that said to
the man at Bethesda, "Rise, take up thy bed, and walk," said also to
Lazarus, who had lain four days in the grave, "Come forth."
6. It is with reason that we lay special stress upon the fact that
Christ performed many of his greatest miracles in the presence of his
enemies, who had both the means and the will to institute a searching
investigation concerning them, and who would have denied their reality
had it been in their power to do so. Sad indeed is the record of the
perverse opposition and calumny which our Lord encountered on the part
of the Jewish rulers. But even this has a bright side. It shows us that
the Saviour's miracles could endure the severest scrutiny--that after
every means which power and wealth and patronage and official influence
could command had been used for their disparagement, their divine origin
still shone forth like the unclouded sun at noon-day. If any one doubts
this, let him read attentively the ninth chapter of John's gospel, which
records the investigation instituted by the Jewish rulers respecting the
miracle of healing a man blind from his birth. In no modern court of
justice was a question of fact ever subjected to a severer scrutiny. And
the result was that they could not deny the miracle, but said in their
blind hatred of the Redeemer, "Give God the praise: we know that this
man is a sinner." So when they could not deny that Jesus cast out
devils, they alleged that he did it by the help of Satan; when it was
manifest that he had by a word healed a man that had lain
thirty-and-eight years a helpless paralytic, they blamed him for working
on the Sabbath-day; when Lazarus had been called out of his grave in the
presence of all the people, they said, "What do we? for this man doeth
many miracles." And then they consulted not to disprove these miracles,
but to put both him and Lazarus to death. Thus, in the good providence
of God, we have for the reality of our Lord's miracles the testimony of
his enemies and persecutors.
7. The _resurrection_ of Jesus is the miracle of miracles, of which we
may say with truth that it comprehends in itself all the other mighty
works recorded in the gospel history. We cannot but notice the
condescending care with which our Lord himself certified to his
disciples its reality. When he had suddenly appeared in the midst of
them, "they were terrified and affrighted, and supposed that they had
seen a spirit." To convince them of the reality of his bodily presence,
he said, "Behold my hands and my feet, that it is I myself: handle me
and see; for a spirit hath not flesh and bones, as ye see me have. And
when he had thus spoken, he showed them his hands and his feet," that
they might see in them the prints of the nails. Finding them still
incredulous, "believing not for joy and wondering," he added another
conclusive proof that he was not a spirit, but a true man: he asked for
meat; "and they gave him a piece of a broiled fish, and of an honeycomb;
and he took it, and did eat before them." Luke 24:36-43. To the
unbelieving Thomas he offered the further proof which he had demanded:
"Reach hither thy finger, and behold my hands; and reach hither thy
hand, and thrust it into my side; and be not faithless, but believing."
The certainty of this great event the evangelist Luke sets forth in his
introduction to the Acts of the Apostles: "To whom also," (to the
apostles,) "he showed himself alive after his passion, by many
infallible proofs, being seen of them forty days, and speaking of the
things pertaining to the kingdom of God." The apostle Peter, in his
address to Cornelius and his friends, says: "Him God raised up the third
day, and showed him openly; not to all the people, but unto witnesses
chosen before of God, even to us, who did eat and drink with him after
he rose from the dead." Acts 10:40, 41. The apostle Paul, in his
enumeration of our Lord's appearances to his disciples after his
resurrection, 1 Cor. 5-8, mentions that on one occasion "he was seen of
above five hundred brethren at once; of whom," he says, "the greater
part remain unto this present, but some are fallen asleep."
It was not the greatness of the miracle, considered simply by itself,
but its relation to the gospel, that made our Lord's resurrection from
the dead the central fact of the apostles' testimony. It was, so to
speak, the hinge on which the whole work of redemption turned. Our
Lord's expiatory death for the sins of the world and his resurrection
from the dead were both alike parts of one indivisible whole. It was not
his claim to be the promised Messiah alone that was involved in the fact
of his resurrection. His completion, as the Messiah, of the work of
man's redemption was also dependent on that great event. "If Christ be
not risen," says the apostle, "then is our preaching vain, and your
faith is also vain;" and again, "If Christ be not raised, your faith is
vain; ye are yet in your sins." 1 Cor. 15:14, 17. We need not wonder
then that the apostles, in their testimony to the people, insisted so
earnestly on this one great fact in our Lord's history; for by it God
sealed him as the Prince of life.
8. The _character of Jesus_ of Nazareth, as drawn by the four
evangelists, is the highest possible proof of the authenticity and
credibility of the gospel narratives. Of this it has been justly said,
"The character is possible to be conceived, because it was actualized in
a living example." (Nature and the Supernatural, p. 324.) The
inapproachable excellence of Christ's character places it high above all
human praise. The reverent mind shrinks instinctively from the idea of
attempting to eulogize it, as from something profane and presumptuous.
We do not eulogize the sun shining in his strength, but we put a screen
over our eyes when we would look at him, lest we should be blinded by
the brightness of his beams. So must every man look at Jesus of Nazareth
with reverence and awe, who has any true sense of what is great and
excellent. What is now to be said of this character is not eulogy. It is
part of an argument for the reality of the events recorded in the gospel
history. Here it is important to notice not only the character itself,
but the manner of the portraiture, and its power over the human heart.
The character of Jesus is perfectly _original_. Nothing like it was ever
conceived of by the loftiest minds of antiquity. Nothing like it has
appeared since his day, in actual life, or even in the conceptions of
the most gifted writers. As there is one sun in the firmament, so there
is one Jesus Christ in the history of the world. His character has a
_human_ and a _divine_ element; and these two interpenetrate each other,
so as to constitute together one indivisible and glorious whole. Jesus
could not be, even in idea, what he is as man, unless he were God also.
And what he is as God, he is as God made flesh, and dwelling as man
among men. It is the _God-man_ which the gospel narratives present to
us. If we consider the qualities which belong to our Saviour as man, we
notice the union in full measure and just proportion of all those
qualities which belong to perfect humanity. In the case of mere men, the
abundant possession of one quality implies almost of necessity
deficiency elsewhere, and consequently one-sidedness of character. Not
so in the case of Jesus. He has all the attributes of a perfect man in
perfect fulness and in perfect harmony with each other. Let us
reverently look at some particulars.
His character unites the deepest _tranquillity_ with the deepest
_fervor_ of spirit. Our Lord's tranquillity shines forth through the
whole course of his ministry, and manifests itself alike in great things
and small. It is evident to all who read the narratives of the
evangelists that he performed his mighty works as one conscious that
divine power belonged to him of right, and that the exercise of it, even
in its highest forms, was nothing new nor strange. In connection with
his greatest miracles he calmly gave directions, as if they had been
ordinary occurrences. When he had fed many thousands with a few loaves
and fishes, he said, "Gather up the fragments that remain, that nothing
be lost." When he had raised from the dead the daughter of Jairus, "he
commanded that something should be given her to eat." When he had called
out of the grave one who had lain there four days, he directed, "Loose
him and let him go." Even in Gethsemane, when oppressed with agony too
great for human endurance, his self-possession remained as perfect as
his submission to his Father's will. That his serenity never left him
for a moment during the process of his arrest, trial, sentence, and
lingering death on the cross, is a truth which shines forth from the
sacred narrative as his own raiment did on the mount of transfiguration,
"white and glistering." Any attempt to describe it would be but mockery.
And yet this deep composure of spirit is not that of indifference or of
a cold temperament. It is the composure of one in whose bosom burns a
steady and intense flame of zeal for the glory of God and good will
towards men, by which he is borne forward with untiring energy in the
work committed to him from above. It is the composure of a spirit whose
depth of emotion none can measure.
We notice again the union in our Lord of perfect _wisdom_ with perfect
_freedom from guile_ and double dealing. That his wisdom was never at
fault all must admit. He was surrounded by crafty adversaries, who
contrived all manner of plans to entangle him in his talk. Yet in the
twinkling of an eye he turned their wiles against themselves, and they
found themselves taken in their own net. Meanwhile he always pursued the
straightforward course of sincerity and truth. Not the slightest trace
of deceit or cunning artifice appeared in his ministry from first to
last.
Closely allied to the above-named qualities are _prudence_ and
_boldness_, both of which met in full measure in our Lord's character.
That he feared no man and shrank from no peril when it was his duty to
encounter it, is too obvious to be insisted on. Yet he never needlessly
encountered opposition and danger. He was never bold for the purpose of
making a show of boldness. When the Jews sought to kill him, he "walked
in Galilee" to avoid their enmity. When his brethren went up to the
feast in Jerusalem, he would not go up with them, but afterwards went
up, "not openly, but as it were in secret." When, at a later day, after
the resurrection of Lazarus, the Jews sought his life, he "walked no
more openly among the Jews; but went thence into a country near to the
wilderness, into a city called Ephraim, and there continued with his
disciples." Not until the time had come that he should die for the sins
of the world did he expose himself to the rage of his enemies; and then
he went boldly into Jerusalem at the head of his disciples. His own
precept, "Be ye wise as serpents and harmless as doves," he perfectly
exemplified throughout his ministry.
We cannot but notice once more the union in our Lord's character of the
greatest _tenderness_ with unbending _severity_ whenever the cause of
truth demanded severity. He opened his ministry at Nazareth by reading
from the prophet Isaiah a portraiture of his own character: "The Spirit
of the Lord God is upon me, because he hath anointed me to preach the
gospel to the poor; he hath sent me to heal the broken-hearted, to
preach deliverance to the captives and recovering of sight to the blind,
to set at liberty them that are bruised, to preach the acceptable year
of the Lord." Isa. 61:1, 2. The execution of this mission required a
tender and forbearing spirit, that would not break the bruised reed or
quench the smoking flax; and such was the spirit of his whole ministry.
For the penitent, though publicans and sinners, he had only words of
kindness. Towards the infirmities and mistakes of his sincere disciples
he was wonderfully forbearing. When a strife had arisen among the
apostles which of them should be the greatest, instead of denouncing in
severe terms their foolish ambition, he called to himself a little child
and set him in the midst, and from him gave them a lesson on the duty of
humility. Yet this tender and compassionate Jesus of Nazareth, who took
little children in his arms and blessed them, who stood and cried, "Come
unto me, all ye that labor and are heavy-laden, and I will give you
rest," and who wept at the grave of Lazarus--this same Jesus could say
to Peter when he would deter Him from the path of duty, "Get thee behind
me, Satan!" and could denounce in the presence of all the people the
scribes and Pharisees who sat in Moses' seat. In truth, the most severe
denunciations of hypocrisy and wickedness contained in the New Testament
and the most awful descriptions of the future punishment of the
impenitent fell from our Saviour's lips. In his tenderness there was no
element of weakness.
Our Lord's perfect _meekness and humility_ need no human comment. They
shine forth with serene brightness through all his words and actions. He
described himself as "meek and lowly in heart," and his life was a
perpetual illustration of these qualities. "When he was reviled, he
reviled not again; when he suffered, he threatened not; but committed
himself to him that judgeth righteously." But the point to be
particularly noticed is the wonderful harmony of this meek and lowly
mind with _claims_ more _lofty_ than were ever conceived of by any man
before him--claims everywhere boldly asserted, and which, as we shall
see hereafter, implied the possession of a divine nature. It is not that
he claimed and exercised power over nature or outward power over men,
even power to raise the dead, that fills us with awe and amazement; but
that he went within the spirit, and offered inward life, light,
strength, peace--in a word, life eternal--to all who would come to him;
and that he asserted, in a way as decisive as it was calm, his absolute
control over the everlasting destinies of all men. When we read the
account of these superhuman claims, we have no feeling that they were
incongruous or extravagant. On the contrary, they seem to us altogether
legitimate and proper. And yet, as has been often remarked, were any
other person to advance a tithe of these pretensions, he would be justly
regarded as a madman. The only possible explanation is, that this meek
and lowly Jesus made good his claim to be the Son of God by what he was
and by what he did.
Another quality very conspicuous in our Lord's character is his perfect
_elevation above this world_. "Ye are from beneath," said he to the
Jews; "I am from above: ye are of this world; I am not of this world."
It was not in his origin alone, but in his spirit also that he was from
above. As he was from heaven, so was he heavenly in all his affections.
His own precept to his disciples, "Lay not up for yourselves treasures
upon earth, but lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven," was the law
of his own life. He had no treasures here below but the souls of men;
and these are not earthly, but heavenly treasures. Satan plied him in
vain with the offer of "all the kingdoms of the world, and the glory of
them." In him "the lust of the flesh, and the lust of the eyes, and the
pride of life" could find no place for a single moment. He kept the
world always and perfectly under his feet. Yet this perfect elevation
above the world had in it no tinge of _stoicism_ or _asceticism_. He
made no war upon the genuine passions and affections of human nature,
but simply subjected them all to his higher spiritual nature; in other
words to the law of God. Except temporarily for meditation and prayer,
he never withdrew himself, nor encouraged his disciples to withdraw
themselves from the cares and temptations of an active life, under the
false idea of thus rising to a state of superhuman communion with God.
He did not fast himself systematically, nor enjoin upon his disciples
systematic fastings, but left fastings for special emergencies. In a
word, he ate and drank like other men. His heavenly mind lay not in the
renunciation of God's gifts, but in maintaining his affections
constantly raised above the gifts themselves to the divine Giver. It
took on a human, and therefore an imitable form.
And what shall we say of our Lord's spotless _purity_ of heart and life?
We cannot eulogize it, for it is above all human praise. But we can
refresh the eyes of our understanding by gazing upon it, as upon a
glorious sun, until we feel its vivifying and transforming power in our
own souls.
In contemplating the above qualities, it is of the highest importance to
notice that, though they exist in such fulness and perfection, they are
yet human, and therefore imitable. They are not the virtues of an angel
in heaven, or of a king on the throne, or of a philosopher in his
school, or of a monk in his cell; but of a man moving among men in the
sphere of common life, and filling out common life with all the duties
appropriate to it. His example then is available for the imitation of
the lowest not less than the highest. It offers itself to all classes of
men as a model of all that is good in human nature. We may boldly affirm
that such a character as this could never have been conceived of, if it
had not actually existed.
* * * * *
If now we look at our Lord's _character as a teacher_, we find it
equally original and wonderful. Writers on the gospel history have with
reason laid great stress on the fact that he stood high above the errors
and prejudices, not only of his own age and nation, but of all ages and
nations. He saw intuitively and perfectly what God is, what man is, and
what are man's relations to God and to his fellow-men; and was therefore
able to establish a religion for men, as men, that needs no change for
any age, or nation, or condition of life. He has sometimes been called a
"Galilean peasant." The phrase sounds unpleasantly in the ears of those
who adore him as their divine Lord and Master. Nevertheless it is in an
important sense true. He was educated among the common people of
Galilee, and had no special human training. It was an age of narrowness
and formalism. The scribes and Pharisees, who sat in Moses' seat, had
covered up the true meaning and spirit of the Old Testament beneath a
mass of human traditions that substituted "mint, and anise, and cummin"
for "the weightier matters of the law." Yet in such an age Jesus came
forth a perfect teacher of divine truth. He swept away at once the
glosses of the Jewish doctors, unfolded to the people the true meaning
of the law and the prophets as preparatory to his coming, and gave to
the world a religion that meets the wants of all classes and conditions
of men in all ages and nations. Considered as the good leaven which
Christ cast into the lump of humanity, the gospel has continual
progress. But considered as the plan of salvation which he revealed, it
cannot have progress, for it is perfect. It needs no amendment or
change, that it may be adapted to our age or any other age. As air and
water and light meet the wants of all men in all ages, so the gospel,
when freed from human additions and received in its original purity, is
all that fallen humanity needs. Here is a great fact to be explained.
The only reasonable explanation is that given by the Saviour himself.
When the Jews marvelled at his teaching, saying, "How knoweth this man
letters, having never learned?" he answered, "My doctrine is not mine,
but his that sent me." Such a religion as that described in the gospels
could not have been conceived of unless it had actually existed; and it
could not have existed without God for its author. Gifted men may be in
advance of their own age; that is, they may see before others what is
the next thing indicated by the present progress of society. But mere
men do not rise at once above all the errors and prejudices by which
they are surrounded into the region of pure light and truth. All the
work that men do is imperfect, and needs emendation by those who come
after them. A religion that remains from age to age as perfectly adapted
to the wants of all men as it was at the beginning, must be from God,
not from man.
Our Saviour's _manner of teaching_ was also as original as the teaching
itself. He saw through the world of nature and mind at a glance, and it
stood always ready at hand to furnish him with arguments and
illustrations--arguments and illustrations as simple and natural as they
were profound, and by means of which he unfolded the deepest truths in
the plainest and most intelligible forms. Take, for example, the
parables of the mustard-seed and the leaven. They contain within
themselves the whole history of Christ's kingdom in its inward
principle. They unfold views of its steady progress from age to age, as
a growth from an inward vital force, on which the most philosophical
minds especially love to dwell; and yet they are perfectly intelligible
to the most unlettered man. To teach by parables, without any false
analogies, and in a way that interested and instructed alike the learned
and the ignorant, this was a wonderful characteristic of our Lord's
ministry. In this respect no one of his apostles, not even the bosom
disciple, attempted to imitate him. Yet in the great fact that his
teaching was not for a select few, but for the masses of mankind, so
that "the common people heard him gladly," all his servants can and
ought to imitate him.
Thus far we have considered mainly the human side of our Lord's
character, though through it all his divinity shines forth. Let us now
look more particularly at _his divine mission and character_. On the
fact that his mission was from God we need not dwell. Nicodemus
expressed the judgment of every candid mind when he said, "Rabbi, we
know that thou art a teacher come from God; for no man can do these
miracles that thou doest, except God be with him." If there is one truth
which our Lord asserted more frequently than any other, it is that he
came from God: "The works which the Father hath given me to finish, the
same works that I do, bear witness of me, that the Father hath sent me."
"If God were your Father, ye would love me: for I proceeded forth and
came from God; neither came I of myself, but he sent me."
But Jesus had not only a divine mission, but a _divine person_ also; and
the manner in which he manifested his divinity is, if possible, more
original than any thing else in his history, and bears in itself the
impress of reality. A company of men who should attempt to give a
portraiture of a divine being simply from their own conceptions would
doubtless put into his lips many direct assertions of his deity, and
make his life abound in stupendous miracles. But it is not in any such
crude way that our Saviour's divinity manifests itself in the gospel
narratives. It is true indeed that in the manner of his miracles he
everywhere makes the impression that he performs them by virtue of a
power residing in himself; that while the _commission_ to do them comes
from the Father, the _power_ to do them belongs to his own person. In
this respect the contrast is very sharp between his manner and that of
the prophets before him and the apostles after him. In their case the
power, as well as the commission, was wholly from God, as they were
careful to teach the people: "In the name of Jesus Christ of Nazareth,
rise up and walk." "Why look ye so earnestly on us, as though by our own
power or holiness we had made this man to walk?" "His name, through
faith in his name, hath made this man strong, whom ye see and know."
"Eneas, Jesus Christ maketh thee whole." But not to dwell on this, let
us look at some very remarkable ways in which our Saviour manifested his
divine nature.
He called _God his Father_ in a peculiar and incommunicable sense. He
never said, "Our Father," by which he would have classed himself with
other men, but always, "My Father," showing that thus he stood alone in
his relation to God. As the son has the same nature with the father, and
when acting under his authority, the same prerogatives also; so Jesus,
as the Son of God, claimed the power and right to do whatever his Father
did, and to receive the same honor as his Father: "My Father worketh
hitherto, and I work." This the Jews rightly understood to be an
assertion of equality with the Father; for they "sought the more to kill
him, because he not only had broken the Sabbath, but said also that God
was his own Father, (so the original reads,) making himself equal with
God." To this the Saviour answered: "The Son can do nothing of
himself"--acting in his own name, and without the concurrence of the
Father's will--"but what he seeth the Father do; for what things soever
he doeth, these also doeth the Son likewise. For the Father loveth the
Son, and showeth him all things that himself doeth: and he will show him
greater works than these, that ye may marvel. For as the Father raiseth
up the dead, and quickeneth them; even so the Son quickeneth whom he
will. For the Father judgeth no man; but hath committed all judgment
unto the Son: that all men should honor the Son, even as they honor the
Father. He that honoreth not the Son, honoreth not the Father which hath
sent him." John 5:17-23. Here the Son, though acting under the Father's
commission, claims equality with the Father; for without this he could
neither share all the Father's counsels, nor do all the Father's works,
nor receive from the Father authority to judge all men--an office which
plainly implies omniscience--nor be entitled to the same honor as the
Father. The point to be especially noticed in the present connection is
the originality of the way in which our Lord here asserts his divine
nature. We cannot for a moment suppose that such a way would have
occurred to one who was writing from his own invention. The only
possible explanation of the existence of such a passage in the gospel of
John, (and the same is true of many other passages,) is that it is a
true record of what actually took place in our Lord's history.
Again: our Lord represents himself as the source of _light and life_ to
all mankind. To the Jews he said: "I am the light of the world: he that
followeth me shall not walk in darkness, but shall have the light of
life." John 8:12. In comparison with what he here claims for himself,
the outward work of opening men's bodily eyes dwindles into nothing.
That was only the seal of his divine mission. But in these and other
like words, he does, as it were, draw aside the veil of his humanity,
and give us a glimpse of the glory of the Godhead that dwells within. So
too he says, "I am the living bread which came down from heaven: if any
man eat of this bread he shall live for ever; and the bread that I will
give is my flesh, which I will give for the life of the world." John
6:51. The resurrection of Lazarus, stupendous as that miracle was, does
not fill us with such awe and amazement as the mighty words which he
uttered to Martha: "I am the resurrection and the life: he that
believeth in me, though he were dead, yet shall he live: and whosoever
liveth, and believeth in me, shall never die," John 11:25, 26; for in
these words he represents himself as being to the whole human family the
author of all life, natural, spiritual, and eternal. He connects the
particular act of giving life which he is about to perform with the
final resurrection, "when all that are in the graves shall hear his
voice, and shall come forth; they that have done good, unto the
resurrection of life; and they that have done evil, unto the
resurrection of damnation." John 5:28, 29. These utterances, so calm, so
lofty, so original, do not sound like the inventions of man. They wear a
heavenly costume. When we read them, we feel that the only explanation
of their existence in the gospel narrative is the fact that they were
actually uttered by our Lord.
And the same is true of another kindred class of passages, in which the
Saviour asserts his _inward dominion over the human spirit_. Hear him,
as he stands and proclaims: "Come unto me, all ye that labor and are
heavy laden, and I will give you rest." Matt. 11:28. "Peace I leave with
you; my peace I give unto you: not as the world giveth, give I unto
you." John 14:27. The world gives peace at best outwardly, and often
only in empty words; but Jesus has direct access to the inmost fountains
of feeling. He gives peace inwardly and efficaciously. When he turned
into songs of joy the tears of the widow of Nain by raising her son to
life, that was a wonderful instance of his giving peace; but far greater
and more glorious is the work when, by his inward presence in the soul,
he makes it victorious over all "the sufferings of this present time."
This is what he meant when he said to his disciples: "These things have
I spoken unto you that in me ye might have peace. In the world ye shall
have tribulations; but be of good cheer: I have overcome the world."
John 16:33. In his name, apostles raised the dead to life; but no
apostle--no mere man--would have ventured to say, "In me ye shall have
peace."
These last words naturally lead to the consideration of another very
peculiar form of speech first introduced by our Lord, and passing from
him to the church; that of the _mutual indwelling_ of himself and his
disciples: "Abide in me, and I in you. As the branch cannot bear fruit
of itself, except it abide in the vine; no more can ye, except ye abide
in me." John 15:1-7. It is a vital union of the believer's soul with
Jesus, through which he receives from Jesus life and fruitfulness, as
the branch from its union with the vine. Here is an assertion of deity.
The Jews regarded Moses with the highest reverence; but no one of them
ever spoke of abiding in Moses, or having Moses abiding in himself. Had
any Christian disciple represented himself as dwelling in Peter or Paul,
the apostle would have rent his clothes at the blasphemy of the words.
Other peculiar ways in which our Lord manifested his deity could be
specified, but the above will suffice as examples. Let any candid man
consider all these examples in their connection, each of them so
original and so majestic, so simple and natural, and yet so far removed
from anything that could have occurred to one sitting down to draw from
his own imagination the picture of a divine person; and he will be
convinced that such a record as that contained in our four canonical
gospels was possible only because it is a simple and truthful history of
what Jesus of Nazareth was and did. Plain men can give a straightforward
account of what they have seen or learned from eye-witnesses; but it
transcends the genius of any man to invent such narratives of such a
character. The gospel narratives are marked throughout by artless
simplicity. Each of the writers goes straightforward with his story,
never thinking for a moment of what his own genius is to accomplish, but
intent only on exhibiting his Lord and Master as the Saviour of the
world. The apostle John, in giving the design of his own gospel, gives
that also of the other evangelists: "And many other signs truly did
Jesus in the presence of his disciples, which are not written in this
book. But these are written, that ye might believe that Jesus is the
Christ, the Son of God; and that believing ye might have life through
his name." John 20:30, 31.
And because this glorious and divine person is a living reality, he
possesses from age to age an undying power over the human heart. Love
towards him is the mightiest principle on earth, both for doing and for
suffering. It makes the soul of which it has taken full possession
invincible. When Jesus of Nazareth is enthroned in the castle of the
human heart, not all the powers of earth and hell can overcome it. See
farther, chap. 12:8.
9. Since, as we have seen, the gospel narratives are an authentic record
of facts, it follows that in the person and life of Jesus of Nazareth we
have a _supernatural revelation_ from God in the fullest sense of the
words. That his origin was both superhuman and supernatural, the gospels
teach us in the most explicit terms. He says of himself: "I came forth
from the Father, and am come into the world: again, I leave the world,
and go unto the Father." John 16:28. "And now, O Father, glorify thou me
with thine own self, with the glory which I had with thee before the
world was." John 17:5. That the appearance on earth of One who dwelt
with the Father in glory before the world was, and after the fulfilment
of his mission returned to the Father again, was supernatural, is
self-evident. His person was, as has been shown, divine. He was God
manifest in the flesh; and wherever he went, his supernatural power
displayed itself. The miraculous element is so interwoven into the very
substance of the gospel history, that there is no possibility of setting
it aside, except by rejecting the history itself. It is the fashion with
a certain class of writers, after denying our Lord's divine nature and
explaining away his supernatural works, to be profuse in their eulogies
of his character. If they can first rid themselves of the obligation to
believe on him and obey him as their divine Lord, they are willing to
bestow upon him, as a man like themselves, the highest commendations.
But the attempt is hopeless. What will they do with the fact of his
resurrection from the dead--the most certain as well as the greatest
miracle in his history, and which includes in itself all the rest? Had
Jesus not risen from the dead, as he so often affirmed that he should,
then he would have been what the Jewish rulers called him--a deceiver,
and no Saviour; but since the miracle of his resurrection must be
admitted by all who do not reject the whole gospel history as a fable,
why deny the lesser miracles connected with his history? The assumption
that miracles are impossible can only go with the denial of God's
personality; and this, by whatever name it is called, is atheism. If
there is a personal God, who is before nature, above nature, and the
author of nature in its inmost essence, he can manifest himself within
the sphere of nature in a supernatural way, whenever he chooses to do
so. If God who made us cares for us, and is indeed our Father in heaven,
it is reasonable to suppose that he may reveal himself to us in
supernatural forms, when the end is our deliverance from the bondage of
sin, and our preparation for an eternity of holiness and happiness. To
deny this, would be to make nature the highest end of God--to put the
world of God's intelligent creatures under nature, instead of making
nature their servant and minister.
10. The objections that have been urged against the gospel history are
of two kinds. The first class relates to its doctrines, as, for example,
that of demoniacal possessions, that of eternal punishment, etc. To
enlarge on this subject would be out of place here. It is sufficient to
say that the only reasonable rule is to argue from the certainty of the
record to the truth of the doctrines in question. He who first assumes
that a certain doctrine cannot be true, and then, on the ground of this
assumption, sets aside a history sustained by overwhelming evidence,
exalts his own finite understanding to be the supreme rule of faith; and
to him an authoritative revelation becomes an impossibility. The second
class of objections relates to alleged contradictions and
inconsistencies between the different writers. The explanation and
reconciliation of these is the work of the harmonist. We need not wait,
however, for the result of his labors, that we may rest confidently on
the truth of the record. These apparent disagreements do not affect a
single doctrine or duty of Christianity. They all relate to incidental
matters, such as the time and order of the events recorded, the
accompanying circumstances, etc. Had we all the missing links of the
evangelical history, we might reconcile all these differences; but
without them, it is not in all cases possible. Nor is it necessary;
since, where different writers record the same transactions, substantial
agreement, with diversity in respect to the details, is everywhere the
characteristic of authentic history.
CHAPTER V.
THE ACTS OF THE APOSTLES AND THE ACKNOWLEDGED EPISTLES.
1. The genuineness, uncorrupt preservation, and credibility of the
gospel narratives having been shown to rest on a firm foundation, the
principal part of our work is accomplished, so far as the New Testament
is concerned. We are prepared beforehand to expect some record of the
labors of the apostles, like that contained in the Acts of the Apostles;
and also discussions and instructions relating to the doctrines and
duties of Christianity, such as we find in the apostolic epistles. Our
Saviour established his church only in its fundamental principles and
ordinances. The work of publishing his gospel and organizing churches
among Jews and Gentiles he committed to his apostles. Before his
crucifixion he taught them that the Holy Ghost could not come (that is,
in his special and full influences as the administrator of the new
covenant) till after his departure to the Father: "It is expedient for
you that I go away: for if I go not away, the Comforter will not come
unto you; but if I depart I will send him unto you." John 16:7. "When
the Comforter is come, whom I will send unto you from the Father, even
the Spirit of truth which proceedeth from the Father, he shall testify
of me. And ye also shall bear witness, because ye have been with me from
the beginning." John 15:26, 27. Now we have, in the Acts of the
Apostles, first an account of the fulfilment by the Saviour of his
promise that he would send the Holy Ghost; then a record how the
apostles, thus qualified, obeyed the Saviour's command to preach the
gospel to Jews and Gentiles--a record not, indeed, complete, but
sufficient to show the manner and spirit in which the work was
performed. Some truths, moreover, of the highest importance the Saviour
gave only in outline, because the time for their full revelation had not
yet come. John 16:12, 13. Such were especially the doctrine of his
atoning sacrifice on Calvary with the connected doctrine of
justification by faith; and the divine purpose to abolish the Mosaic
economy, and with it the distinction between Jews and Gentiles. We have,
partly in the Acts and partly in the epistles, an account of the
unfolding of these great truths by the apostles under the guidance of
the Holy Spirit, and of the commotions and contentions that naturally
accompanied this work. The practical application of the gospel to the
manifold relations of life, domestic, social, and civil, with the
solution of various difficult questions arising therefrom, was another
work necessarily devolved on the apostles, and performed by them with
divine wisdom for the instruction of all coming ages. The book of Acts
and the epistles ascribed to the apostles being such a natural sequel to
the Redeemer's work, as recorded by the four evangelists, a briefer
statement of the evidence for their genuineness and authenticity will be
sufficient.
I. _The Acts of the Apostles._ 2. According to Chrysostom, First Homily
on Acts, this book was not so abundantly read by the early Christians as
the gospels. The explanation of this comparative neglect is found in the
fact that it is occupied with the doings of the apostles, not of the
Lord himself. Passing by some uncertain allusions to the work in the
writings of the apostolic fathers, the first explicit quotation from it
is contained in the letter heretofore noticed, chap. 2:4, from the
churches of Vienne and Lyons in Gaul, written about A.D. 177, in which
they say: "Moreover they prayed, after the example of Stephen the
perfect martyr, for those who inflicted upon them cruel torments, 'Lord,
lay not this sin to their charge.'" Irenæus, in the last part of the
second century, Tertullian in the last part of the same century and the
beginning of the third, Clement of Alexandria about the end of the
second century and onwards--all these bear explicit testimony to the
book of Acts, ascribing it to Luke as its author; and from their day
onward the notices of the work are abundant. We may add the concurrent
testimony of the Muratorian canon and the Syriac version, called the
Peshito, which belong to the last quarter of the second century, and the
still earlier testimony of the Old Latin version. In a word, the book is
placed by Eusebius among those that were universally acknowledged by the
churches.
The rejection of the book by certain heretical sects, as the
Ebionites, Marcionites, Manichæans, etc., is of no weight, as
their objections rested not on historical, but on doctrinal
grounds. As to the statement of Photius that "some call Clement
of Rome the author, some Barnabas, and some Luke the
evangelist," it is to be remarked that he is giving not his own
judgment, for he expressly ascribes it to Luke, but the
arbitrary opinions of certain persons; and these are
contradicted by the obvious fact that the third gospel, which
proceeded from the same hand as the Acts of the Apostles, was
never ascribed to any other person than Luke.
3. The _internal testimony_ to Luke's authorship is decisive. The writer
himself, in dedicating it to the same Theophilus, expressly identifies
himself with the author of the third gospel: "The former treatise have I
made, O Theophilus, of all that Jesus began both to do and to teach."
Acts 1:1. Then there is a remarkable agreement in style and diction
between the gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles, as any one may
learn who peruses them both together in the original Greek. Davidson,
Introduction to the New Testament, vol. 2, p. 8, has collected
forty-seven examples of "terms that occur in both, but nowhere else in
the New Testament." Luke, moreover, as the travelling companion of Paul,
had all needed facilities for composing such a work. With regard to the
latter portion of the book, this is denied by none. His use of the first
person plural, "we endeavored," "the Lord had called us," "we came,"
etc.--which first appears, chap. 16:10, and continues, with certain
interruptions, through the remainder of the book--admits of but one
natural and reasonable explanation, namely, that when he thus joins
himself with the apostle he was actually in his company. As it respects
the first part of the book, we notice that he visited Cæsarea with
Paul's company, and "tarried there many days," chap. 21:8-10; afterwards
he went up with him to Jerusalem, chap. 21:15. We find him again with
Paul at Cæsarea when he sets out for Rome. Chap. 27:1. Now at such
centres as Jerusalem and Cæsarea he must have had abundant opportunities
to learn all the facts recorded in the present book which could not be
gathered from Paul's own lips.
4. For the _credibility_ of this book we have, in general, the same
arguments which apply to the gospel narratives, especially to the gospel
of Luke. Its author is evidently a sincere and earnest man, who goes
straight forward with his narrative; and where he does not write as an
eye-witness, he had, as we have seen, abundant means of ascertaining the
truth concerning the facts which he records. His narrative is, moreover,
corroborated in a very special way, as will be shown hereafter--No. 8,
below--by its many undesigned coincidences with the events alluded to in
the epistle of Paul. To admit the credibility of the gospel of Luke and
to deny that of this work would be altogether inconsistent. In truth,
there is no ground for doubting the credibility of the Acts of the
Apostles other than that which lies in the assumption that no record of
miraculous events can be credible, and this is no ground at all.
To some modern writers the narrative of the gift of tongues on
the day of Pentecost has seemed to present an insuperable
difficulty. Undoubtedly it is above our comprehension how a man
should suddenly become possessed of the ability to speak in a
language before unknown to him; but why should we doubt God's
power to bestow such a gift? Can any one suppose for a moment
that when our Saviour met with a person deaf and dumb from
birth, he had, for the first time, a case beyond his healing
power? The gospel narrative plainly indicates the contrary. Mark
7:32-37, upon which passage see Meyer and Alford.
The account of the sudden death of Ananias and Sapphira, chap.
5:1-11, is not contrary to the spirit of the gospel. They died
by the immediate act of God. His wisdom judged such an example
of severity to be necessary in the beginning of the gospel, as a
solemn warning against hypocrisy and falsehood in his service.
Though the gospel is a system of mercy, it takes, as all admit,
a severe attitude towards those who reject it; why not, then,
towards those who make a hypocritical profession of it? As Nadab
and Abihu were consumed by fire from heaven at the beginning of
the Mosaic economy, so the death of Ananias and his wife came
early in the dispensation of the Holy Ghost, as a testimony to
all future ages of Christ's abhorrence of hypocrisy, and
consequently of the doom which hypocrites will receive from him
at the last day. Matt. 7:21-23.
The fact that Luke has omitted some events in the history of
Paul, as, for example, his journey into Arabia, which occurred
during the three years that intervened between his conversion
and his first visit to Jerusalem, Acts 9:22-26 compared with
Gal. 1:15-18, is no argument
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