A Catechism of Familiar Things;
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Title: A Catechism of Familiar Things;
Author: Anonymous
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A CATECHISM OF FAMILIAR THINGS; ***
Produced by Suzanne Shell, Sankar Viswanathan, and the
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[Illustration: THE AURORA BOREALIS IN THE ARCTIC REGIONS.]
A
CATECHISM
OF
FAMILIAR THINGS;
THEIR HISTORY, AND THE EVENTS WHICH LED TO
THEIR DISCOVERY.
_WITH A SHORT EXPLANATION OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL_
NATURAL PHENOMENA.
FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES.
Enlarged and Revised Edition.
NEW YORK, CINCINNATI, AND ST. LOUIS:
BENZIGER BROTHERS
PRINTERS TO THE HOLY APOSTOLIC SEE.
COPYRIGHT, 1881, BY BENZIGER BROTHERS.
PREFACE.
This book, a reprint of a successful English publication, has been so
enlarged as to be to all intents and purposes new. It has been
carefully revised by a Reverend gentleman, who for some time filled
the chair of Physics and Chemistry in one of our colleges.
Recent inventions and improvements are described in a simple, popular
style, so as to be easily understood by all, and short notices are
given of prominent inventors and scientists. The paragraphs relating
to doctrinal matters conform in every respect to the teachings of the
Church.
A feature which will commend the book to every teacher is the
definitions of difficult words and terms, following the paragraphs in
which such words occur.
Technical language is avoided as much as possible, so as to enable
young pupils to become familiarly acquainted with the various
phenomena of nature, the leading characteristics and general history
of the objects of the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, and the
fundamental truths of the arts and sciences.
The illustrations are of a superior order, and a very complete Index,
which will be appreciated by every teacher, supplements the book. In a
word, no pains have been spared to enhance the value of the work, and
render it an important auxiliary in the dissemination of useful and
entertaining knowledge.
The publishers beg to acknowledge their obligations to the Sisters of
Mercy, Loretto, Pa., to whose kindness they are indebted for many
valuable suggestions.
In the hope that the book may be found suited to the accomplishment of
its aim, it is respectfully submitted to schools and instructors of
youth, who are the best judges of its merits.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
I. Dew, Water, Rain, Snow, Hail, Atmosphere, Wind, Lightning,
Thunder, Electricity, Twilight, and the Aurora
Borealis
II. Corn, Barley, Pearl Barley, Oats, Rye, Potatoes, Tea,
Coffee, and Chocolate
III. Calico, Cotton, Cloth, Wool, Baize, Linen, Flax, Hemp,
Diaper, Holland, Canvas, and Flannel
IV. Cocoa, Toddy, Cherries, Bark, Cork, Cochineal, Cloves,
Cinnamon, and Cassia
V. Bombazine, Crape, Camlet, Cambric, Lace, Silk, Velvet,
and Mohair
VI. Currants, Raisins, Figs, Rice, Sugar, Sugar Candy, &c.,
Sago, Millet, Ginger, Nutmeg, Mace, Pimento or Allspice,
Pepper, and Cayenne Pepper
VII. Glass, Mirrors, Earthenware, Porcelain, Needles, Pins,
Paper, Printing, Parchment, and Vellum
VIII. Capers, Almonds, Oranges, Lemons, Citrons, Limes, Olives,
Oils, Melons, Tamarinds, and Dates
IX. Hats, Stockings, Shoes, Gloves, Leather, Furs, and Ink
X. Asbestus, Salt, Coal, Iron, Copper, Brass, Zinc, and Lapis
Calaminaris
XI. Yams, Mangoes, Bread-Fruit, Shea or Butter Tree, Cow
Tree, Water Tree, Licorice, Manna, Opium, Tobacco,
and Gum
XII. Spectacles, Mariner's Compass, Barometer, Thermometer,
Watches, Clocks, Telescope, Microscope, Gunpowder,
Steam Engine, and Electro-Magnetic Telegraph
XIII. Soap, Candles, Tallow Tree, Spermaceti, Wax, Mahogany,
India Rubber or Caoutchouc, Sponge, Coral,
Lime, Carbon, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Gas, Hydrogen,
Chalk, and Marble
XIV. Gold, Silver, Lead, Tin, Platina, Sulphur, Gems or
Precious Stones--as Diamonds, Rubies, Emeralds,
Turquois, Pearls, Mother-of-Pearl, and Ivory
XV. Starch, Arrow-root, Tapioca, Isinglass, Caviare, the
Vine, Wine, Gin, Rum, Brandy, Vinegar, Indigo,
Gamboge, Logwood, Tar, Pitch, Camphor, Musk,
Myrrh, Frankincense, and Turpentine
XVI. Bricks, Mortar, Granite, Slate, Limestone, or Calcareous
Rocks, Steel, Earths, Volcanoes, and Earthquakes
XVII. Architecture, Sculpture, Use of Money, and Navigation
XVIII. Music, Painting, Poetry, Astronomy, Arts and
Sciences, Art of Writing, and Chemistry
XIX. Attraction, Tides, Gravity, Artesian Wells, Air,
Aneroid Barometer, Ear-Trumpet, Stethoscope,
Audiphone, Telephone, Phonograph, Microphone,
Megaphone, Tasimeter, Bathometer, Anemometer,
Chronometer
XX. Light, Lime Light, Magnesium Light, Electric Light,
Rainbow, Prism, Spectrum, Colors, Photography,
Camera Obscura, Stereoscope, Kaleidoscope
XXI. Electricity, Electric Currents, Electric Battery, Electrotyping,
Stereotyping, Telegraph, Ocean Cable,
Lightning Rod, The Gulf Stream, The Mt. Cenis
Tunnel, The Suez Canal, Suspension Bridges, Eminent
Americans
A CATECHISM
OF
FAMILIAR THINGS.
CHAPTER I.
DEW, WATER, RAIN, SNOW, HAIL, ATMOSPHERE, WIND, LIGHTNING,
THUNDER, ELECTRICITY, TWILIGHT, AND THE AURORA BOREALIS.
What is Dew?
Moisture collected from the atmosphere by the action of cold. During
the day, the powerful heat of the sun causes to arise from the earth
and water a moist vapor, which, after the sun sinks below the horizon,
is condensed by the cold, and falls in the form of dew. Dews are more
copious in the Spring and Autumn than at any other season; in warm
countries than in cold ones: because of the sudden changes of
temperature. Egypt abounds in dews all the summer; for the air being
too hot to condense the vapors in the day-time, they never gather into
clouds and form rain.
_Horizon_, the line which bounds the view on all sides, so
that the earth and sky appear to meet. A Greek word, from
the verb signifying to mark boundaries.
_Temperature_, degree of heat or cold.
_Condense_, to cause the particles of a body to approach or
unite more closely.
What are its uses?
It cools and refreshes the vegetable creation, and prevents it from
being destroyed by the heat of the sun. All hot countries where there
is little or no rain are therefore blessed with this provision by the
all-bountiful Creator, to render them luxuriant and inhabitable; and
the dews which fall are so copious, that the earth is as deeply soaked
with them during the night as if a heavy rain had fallen. For this
reason also it is, that we so often read in the Bible of the "dew of
Heaven" being promised to the Israelites as a signal favor.
_Luxuriant_, fertile, flourishing.
_Signal_, remarkable, eminent.
From what does the vapor originate?
Vapor is water, combined with a still greater quantity of
caloric,--that is, an imponderable and subtile form of matter, which
causes the sensation of heat; and which, driving asunder the particles
of the water, renders it aëriform.
_Imponderable_, without sensible weight.
_Subtile_, thin, not dense, or compact.
_Particle_, a small portion of matter.
_Aëriform_, having the form of air.
What is Water?
The fluid which covers more than three-fifths of the surface of our
globe, and which is necessary for the life and health of the animal
and vegetable creation; for without water there would be neither rain
nor dew, and everything would perish. It is likewise a necessary
beverage for man and the inferior animals.
_Beverage_, drink, liquor for drinking.
In how many states do we find Water?
In four: 1st, solid, as in ice, snow, hail, &c.; 2d, fluid, as in its
common form; 3d, aëriform, as in steam; and 4th, in a state of union
with other matter. Its most simple state is that of ice, which is
water deprived of a certain portion of its caloric: crystallization
then takes place, and the water becomes solid and is called ice.
_Crystallization_, the process by which the parts of a solid
body, separated by solution or fusion, are again brought
into the solid form. If the process is slow, the figure
assumed is regular and bounded by plane and smooth surfaces.
_Solution_, the diffusion of a solid through some liquid.
_Fusion_, melting, or rendering fluid by heat.
From what cause is the Water deprived of its caloric?
From the coldness of the atmosphere: underneath the poles of our globe
it is mostly solid; there it is similar to the hardest rocks, and may
be cut with a chisel, like stone or marble. This great solidity is
occasioned by the low temperature of the surrounding air; and in very
cold countries ice may be ground so fine as to be blown away by the
wind, and will still be ice.
_Poles_, the extremities or ends of the axis, an imaginary
line, supposed to be drawn through the centre of the earth;
or when applied to the heavens, the two points directly over
them.
Is ice the only instance of Water existing in a state of solidity?
No; it is found in a solid state in many minerals, as in marble, &c.,
and is then called _water of Crystallization_. It is essential, in
many cases, to their solidity and transparency.
_Essential_, necessary.
_Transparency_, clearness, the power of transmitting light.
Does Nature decompose Water in any of her operations?
Yes: every living vegetable has the power of decomposing water, by a
secret process peculiar to itself. Fish, too, and all cold-blooded
amphibious animals are gifted with the same power.
_Decomposing_, separating a mixed body into its several
parts.
_Amphibious_, able to live both in water and out of it.
Of what use is this power to vegetables?
The water which they decompose affords them nourishment for the
support of their vital juices, and enables them, by combining the
fluid gases which compose it with those of the air and the soil, to
form their different products; while the superfluous gas is abundantly
given out by their leaves, to refresh the spent air, and render it
wholesome for the animals that breathe it.
_Vital_, belonging to life, necessary to existence.
_Superfluous_, unnecessary, not wanted.
What is Rain?
The condensed aqueous vapors raised in the atmosphere by the sun and
wind, converted into clouds, which fall in rain, snow, hail, or mist:
their falling is occasioned by their own weight in a collision
produced by contrary currents of wind, from the clouds passing into a
colder part of the air, or by electricity. If the vapors are more
copious, and rise a little higher, they form a mist or fog, which is
visible to the eye; higher still they produce rain. Hence we may
account for the changes of the weather: why a cold summer is always a
wet one--a warm, a dry one.
_Aqueous_, watery; consisting of water.
_Collision_, a striking together, a clash, a meeting.
_Electricity_, a natural agent existing in all bodies (see
page 18).
What seasons are more liable to rain than others?
The Spring and Autumn are generally the most rainy seasons, the vapors
_rise_ more plentifully in Spring; and in the Autumn, as the sun
recedes from us and the cold increases, the vapors, which lingered
above us during the summer heats, _fall_ more easily.
_Recede_, to fall back, to retreat.
What is Snow?
Rain congealed by cold in the atmosphere, which causes it to fall to
the earth in white flakes. Snow fertilizes the ground by defending the
roots of plants from the intenser cold of the air and the piercing
winds.
_Congealed_, turned by the force of cold from a fluid to a
solid state; hardened.
_Fertilize_, to render fruitful.
_Intenser_, raised to a higher degree, more powerful.
What is Hail?
Drops of rain frozen in their passage through cold air. Hail assumes
various figures according to the degrees of heat or cold through which
it passes, being sometimes round, flat, &c.
What is the Atmosphere?
The mass of aëriform fluid which encompasses the earth on all sides:
it extends about fifty miles above its surface. Air is the elastic
fluid of which it is composed.
_Elastic_, having the power of springing back, or recovering
its former figure after the removal of any external pressure
which has altered that figure. When the force which
compresses the air is removed, it expands and resumes its
former state.
What are the uses of air?
It is necessary to the well-being of man, since without it neither he
nor any animal or vegetable could exist. If it were not for
atmospheric air, we should be unable to converse with each other; we
should know nothing of sound or smell; or of the pleasures which arise
from the variegated prospects which surround us: it is to the presence
of air and carbonic acid that water owes its agreeable taste. Boiling
deprives it of the greater part of these, and renders it insipid.
_Variegated_, diversified, changed; adorned with different
colors.
_Insipid_, tasteless.
What is Wind?
Air in motion with any degree of velocity.
What is Lightning?
The effect of electricity in the clouds. A flash of lightning is
simply a stream of the electric fluid passing from the clouds to the
earth, from the earth to the clouds, or from one cloud to another.
Lightning usually strikes the highest and most pointed objects, as
high hills, trees, spires, masts of ships, &c.
What is Thunder?
The report which accompanies the electrical union of the clouds: or
the echoes of the report between them and the earth. Thunder is caused
by a sudden discharge of electrical matter collected in the air, by
which vibrations are produced, which give rise to the sound.
What is Electricity?
One of those agents passing through the earth and all substances,
without giving any outward signs of its presence, when at rest; yet
when active, often producing violent and destructive effects. It is
_supposed_ to be a highly elastic fluid, capable of moving through
matter. Clouds owe their form and existence, probably, to it; and it
passes through all substances, but more easily through metals, water,
the human body, &c., which are called conductors, than through air,
glass, and silk, which are called _non_-conductors. When bodies are
not surrounded with non-conductors, the electricity escapes quickly
into the earth.
To what part of bodies is Electricity confined?
To their surfaces, as the outside may be electric, and the inside in a
state of neutrality. The heat produced by an electric shock is very
powerful, but is only accompanied by light when the fluid is
obstructed in its passage. The production and condensation of vapor is
a great source of the atmospheric electricity.
_Condensation_, the act of making any body dense or compact;
that is, of bringing its parts into closer union.
In what other sense is the term Electricity employed?
This term is also employed to designate that important branch of
knowledge which relates to the properties shown by certain bodies when
rubbed against, or otherwise brought in contact with, each other, to
attract substances, and emit sparks of fire.
_Designate_, to point out by some particular token.
_Emit_, to send forth, to throw out.
[Illustration: CUTTING AND GATHERING ICE, ON THE HUDSON RIVER, NEW
YORK.]
Whence is the word derived?
From _electron_, the Greek word for amber, a yellow transparent
substance, remarkable for its electrical power when rubbed: amber is
of a resinous nature, and is collected from the sea-shore, or dug from
the earth, in many parts of the world. It is employed in the
manufacture of beads and other toys, on account of its transparency;
is of some use in medicine, and in the making of varnishes.
_Transparent_, clear, capable of being seen through.
_Resinous_, containing resin, a gummy vegetable juice.
Name a few substances possessing this remarkable property.
Silks of all kinds; the hair and fur of animals, paper, sulphur, and
some other minerals; most of the precious stones; the paste of which
false gems are made; and many other substances used by us in the
common affairs of life, are susceptible of electrical excitement;
among domestic animals the cat furnishes a remarkable instance. When
dry and warm, the back of almost any full-grown cat (the darker its
color the better) can be excited by rubbing it with the hand in the
direction of the hair, a process which is accompanied with a slight
snapping noise, and in the dark by flashes of pale blue light. When a
piece of glass is rubbed with silk, or a stick of red sealing-wax with
woollen cloth, each substance acquires the property of attracting and
repelling feathers, straws, threads of cotton, and other light
substances; the substances just mentioned as highly electric are,
however, merely specimens. All objects, without exception, most
probably are capable of being electrically excited; but some require
more complicated contrivances to produce it than others.
_Electric_, having the properties of electricity.
_Susceptible_, disposed to admit easily.
_Repelling_, the act of driving back.
_Complicated_, formed by the union of several parts in one.
Is there not a machine by which we are enabled to obtain large
supplies of electric power at pleasure?
Yes; the electrical machine. It is made of different forms and sizes:
for common purposes those of the simplest form are the best. A common
form of the machine consists of a circular plate of glass, which can
be turned about a horizontal axis by means of a suitable handle. This
plate turns between two supports, and near its upper and lower edges
are two pairs of cushions, usually made of leather, stuffed with
horse-hair and coated with a mixture of zinc, tin, and mercury, called
an _amalgam_. These cushions are the rubbers for producing friction,
and are connected with the earth by means of a metal chain or rod. Two
large hollow cylinders of brass with globular ends, each supported by
two glass pillars, constitute the reservoir for receiving the
electricity. They are called the _prime conductors_, and are supplied
with U-shaped rods of metal, furnished with points along their sides,
called _combs_, for the purpose of receiving the electricity from the
glass plate, the arms of the U being held upon either side. The other
ends of the conductors are connected by a rod from the middle of which
projects another rod terminating in a knob, for delivering the spark.
On turning the plate, a faint snapping sound is heard, and when the
room is darkened, a spark is seen to be thrown out from the knob
projecting from the _prime conductors_.
Many curious and interesting experiments may be performed by means of
the machine, illustrating the general properties of electricity. For
instance: a person standing on an insulated bench, that is, a bench
with glass legs, or having the legs resting on glass, and having one
hand on the conductor, can send sparks, with the other hand, to
everything and everybody about. This illustrates communication of
electricity by contact. A wooden head, covered with long hairs, when
placed on the conductor, illustrates electrical repulsion, by the
hairs standing on end.
If the hand is held to the knob, sparks will pass from it in rapid
succession, causing in the hand a sensation of pain. This is called an
_electric shock_, and is caused by the electric fluid occasioning a
sudden motion by the contraction of the muscles through which it
passes. The force of the shock is in proportion to the power of the
machine.
What are the Muscles?
Bundles of thin fleshy fibres, or threads, fastened to the bones of
animals, the contraction and expansion of which move the bones or
perform the organic functions of life.
_Organic_, relating to organs or natural instruments by
which some process is carried on.
_Functions_, employments or offices of any part of the body.
_Contraction_, drawing in or shortening.
_Expansion_, extending or spreading out.
What is Twilight?
The light from the first dawning of day to the rising of the sun; and
again between its setting and the last remains of day. Without
twilight, the sun's light would appear at its rising, and disappear at
its setting, instantaneously; and we should experience a sudden
transition from the brightest sunshine to the profoundest obscurity.
The duration of twilight is different in different climates; and in
the same places it varies at different periods of the year.
_Instantaneously_, done in an instant, in a moment's time.
_Obscurity_, darkness, want of light.
How is it produced?
By the sun's refraction--that is, the variation of the rays of light
from their direct course, occasioned by the difference of density in
the atmosphere.
_Variation_, change.
_Density_, closeness of parts, compactness.
What is the poetical name for the morning Twilight?
Aurora, the goddess of the morning, and harbinger of the rising sun:
whom poets and artists represent as drawn by white horses in a
rose-colored chariot, unfolding with her rosy fingers the portals of
the East, pouring reviving dew upon the earth, and re-animating plants
and flowers.
_Harbinger_, a forerunner.
_Portals_, gates, doors of entrance.
_Reanimating_, invigorating with new life.
What remarkable phenomenon is afforded to the inhabitants of the polar
regions?
The Aurora Borealis, or Northern Lights, a luminous appearance in the
northern parts of the heavens, seen mostly during winter, or in frosty
weather, and clear evenings; it assumes a variety of forms and hues,
especially in the polar regions, where it appears in its perfection,
and proves a great solace to the inhabitants amidst the gloom of their
long winter's night, which lasts from one to six months, while the
summer's day which succeeds it lasts in like manner for the same
period of time.
Of what nature is the Aurora Borealis?
It is decidedly an electrical phenomenon which takes place in the
higher regions of the atmosphere. It is somehow connected with the
magnetic poles of the earth; and generally appears in form of a
luminous arch, from east to west, but never from north to south.
_Phenomenon_, an extraordinary appearance. The word is from
a Greek one, signifying, to show or appear.
_Magnetic_, belonging to the magnet, or loadstone.
_Luminous_, bright, shining.
In what country is it seen constantly from October to Christmas?
In Siberia, where it is remarkably bright. On the western coast of
Hudson's Bay, the sun no sooner disappears, than the Aurora Borealis
diffuses a thousand different lights and colors with such dazzling
beauty, that even the full moon cannot eclipse it.
CHAPTER II.
CORN, BARLEY, PEARL BARLEY, OATS, RYE, POTATOES, TEA, COFFEE, AND
CHOCOLATE.
What is Corn?
Corn signifies a race of plants which produce grain in an ear or head,
fit for bread, the food of man; or the grain or seed of the plant,
separated from the ear.
What is generally meant by Corn?
In this country, maize, or Indian corn, is generally meant; but, in a
more comprehensive sense, the term is applied to several other kinds
of grain, such as wheat, rye, barley, oats, &c.
Where was Corn first used?
It is uncertain. The Athenians pretend that it was amongst them it was
first used; the Cretans, Sicilians, and Egyptians also lay claim to
the same. From the accounts in the Bible, we find that its culture
engaged a large share of the attention of the ancient Hebrews.
_Culture_, growth, cultivation. _Hebrews_, the children of
Israel, the Jews
Who were the Athenians?
Inhabitants of Athens, the capital city of Greece.
Who were the Cretans?
The inhabitants of Crete, an island of the Archipelago.
Who were the Sicilians?
Inhabitants of Sicily, the largest island of the Mediterranean Sea,
now a part of Italy, and separated from the mainland by the Strait of
Messina.
Where do the Egyptians dwell?
In Egypt, a country of Africa. It is extremely fertile, producing
great quantities of corn. In ancient times it was called the dry nurse
of Rome and Italy, from its furnishing with corn a considerable part
of the Roman Empire; and we are informed, both from sacred and
profane history, that it was anciently the most fertile in corn of all
countries of the world. The corn of Syria has always been very
superior, and by many classed above that of Egypt.
For what is Barley generally used?
It is very extensively used for making malt, from which are prepared
beer, ale, porter, &c.; in Scotland it is a common ingredient in
broths, for which reason its consumption is very considerable, barley
broth being a dish very frequent there.
_Ingredient_, a separate part of a body consisting of
different materials.
What is Pearl Barley?
Barley freed from the husk by a mill.
What are Oats?
A valuable grain, serving as food for horses. Oats are also eaten by
the inhabitants of many countries, after being ground into meal and
made into oat cakes. Oatmeal also forms a wholesome drink for
invalids, by steeping it in boiling water.
What are the uses of Rye?
In this and some other countries it is much used for bread, either
alone or mixed with wheat; in England principally as food for cattle,
especially for sheep and lambs, when other food is scarce in winter.
Rye yields a strong spirit when distilled.
_Distilled_, subjected to distillation--the operation of
extracting spirit from a substance by evaporation and
condensation.
Of what country is the Potato a native?
Potatoes grew wild in Peru, a country of South America; whence they
were transplanted to other parts of the American continent, and
afterwards to Europe. The honor of introducing this useful vegetable
into England is divided between Sir Francis Drake, in 1580, and Sir
Walter Raleigh, in 1586, some ascribing it to the former, and others
to the latter. It is certain they were obtained from Virginia in the
time of Raleigh; they were cultivated only in the gardens of the
nobility, and were reckoned a great delicacy. They now constitute a
principal article of food in most of the countries of Europe and
America; in Ireland, they have long furnished nearly four-fifths of
the entire food of the people.
What part of the plant is eaten?
The root, which, when roasted or boiled, affords a wholesome and
agreeable meal.
What is Tea?
The leaves of an evergreen shrub, a native of China and Japan, in
which countries alone it is extensively cultivated for use. The
tea-plant was at one time introduced into South Carolina, where its
culture appears to have been attended with but little success. It may
yet become a staple production of some portions of the United States.
_Evergreen_, retaining its leaves fresh and green through
all seasons.
How is it prepared for use?
By carefully gathering the leaves, one by one, while they are yet
small, young, and juicy. They are then spread on large flat iron pans,
and placed over small furnaces, when they are constantly shifted by
the hand till they become too hot to be borne.
What is next done?
They are then removed with a kind of shovel resembling a fan, and
poured on mats, whence they are taken in small quantities, and rolled
in the palm of the hand always in one direction, until they cool and
retain the curl.
How often is this operation repeated?
Two or three times, the furnace each time being made less hot. The tea
is then placed in the store-houses, or packed in chests, and sent to
most of the countries in Europe and America.
Describe the appearance of the Tea-tree.
The Tea-tree when arrived at its full growth, which it does in about
seven years, is about a man's height; the green leaves are narrow, and
jagged all round; the flower resembles that of the wild rose, but is
smaller. The shrub loves to grow in valleys, at the foot of mountains,
and on the banks of rivers where it enjoys a southern exposure to the
sun; though it endures considerable variation of heat and cold, as it
flourishes in the northern clime of Pekin, where the winter is often
severe; and also about Canton, where the heat is sometimes very great.
The best tea, however, grows in a temperate climate, the country about
Nankin producing better tea than either Pekin or Canton, between which
two places it is situated.
What produces the difference between Green and Bohea, or Black?
There are varieties of the plant, and the difference of the tea arises
from the mode of preparation.
What nation first introduced it into Europe?
The Dutch in 1610; it was introduced into England in 1650
What is Coffee?
The berry of the coffee-tree, a native of Arabia. The coffee-tree is
an evergreen, and makes a beautiful appearance at all times of the
year, but especially when in flower, and when the berries are red,
which is usually during the winter. It is also cultivated in Persia,
the East Indies, Liberia on the coast of Africa, the West Indies,
Brazil and other parts of South America, as well as in most tropical
climates.
_Tropical_, being within the tropics, that is, in the Torrid
Zone.
Who was the original discoverer of Coffee, for the drink of man?
It is not exactly known: the earliest written accounts of the use of
Coffee are by Arabian writers in the 15th century; it appears that in
the city of Aden it became, in the latter half of that century, a very
popular drink, first with lawyers, studious persons, and those whose
occupation required wakefulness at night, and soon after, with all
classes. Its use gradually extended to other cities, and to those on
the eastern shores of the Mediterranean. Towards the end of the
seventeenth century, it was carried to Batavia where it was soon
extensively planted, and at last young trees were sent to the
botanical garden at Amsterdam.
Who introduced it into France and England?
Thevenot, the traveller, brought it into France, and a Greek servant
named Pasqua (taken to England by Mr. Daniel Edwards, a Turkey
merchant, in 1652, to make his coffee,) first set up the profession of
coffee-man, and introduced the drink among the English.
How is it prepared?
The berries are roasted in a revolving metallic cylinder, till they
are of a deep brown color, and then ground to powder, and boiled.
_Metallic_, consisting of metal.
What is Chocolate?
A kind of cake or paste, made of the kernel of the cacao-nut.
Describe the Cacao-nut Tree.
It resembles the cherry tree, and grows to the height of fifteen or
sixteen feet. The cacao-nut tree bears leaves, flowers, and fruit, all
the year through.
Where does it grow?
In tropical regions, where it is largely cultivated.
Of what form is the fruit?
It is somewhat like a cucumber, about three inches round, and of a
yellowish red color. It contains from ten to forty seeds, each covered
with a little rind, of a violet color; when this is stripped off, the
kernel, of which they make the chocolate, is visible.
How do they make it into a drink?
By boiling it with water or milk. There are various newly-invented
ways of preparing chocolate, so that it may be made in a few minutes,
by only pouring boiling water upon it.
CHAPTER III.
CALICO, COTTON, CLOTH, WOOL, BAIZE, LINEN, FLAX, HEMP, DIAPER,
HOLLAND, CANVAS, AND FLANNEL.
What is Calico?
A kind of printed cotton cloth, of different colors.
From what place did it take its name?
From Calicut, a city on the coast of Malabar, where it was first made;
much is now manufactured in the United States, England, and many other
countries.
What is Cotton?
A downy or woolly substance, enclosed in the pod, or seed-vessel, of
the cotton-plant. The commercial classification of cotton is
determined--1, by cleanliness or freedom from sand, dry leaf, and
other impurities; 2, by absence of color; both subject also to
character of staple, length, and strength and fineness of fibre. These
together determine relative value. There are two general
classifications, long-stapled and short-stapled. Of the former the
best is the sea island cotton of the United States. The _short staple
cotton_, grows in the middle and upper country; the long staple is
cultivated in the lower country near the sea, and on the islands near
the coasts.
How is it cultivated?
The seeds are sown in ridges made with the plough or hoe; when the
plants are mature, the pods open, and the cotton is picked from them.
Where did Cotton anciently grow, and for what was it used?
In Egypt, where it was used by the priests and sacrificers, for a very
singular kind of garment worn by them alone.
In what manufacture is it now used?
It is woven into muslins, dimities, cloths, calicoes, &c.; and is
also joined with silks and flax, in the composition of other stuffs,
and in working with the needle.
How is the Cotton separated from the seed?
By machines called _cotton gins_, of which there are two kinds; the
_roller-gin_, and the _saw-gin_. In the former, the cotton, just as
gathered from the plant, is drawn between two rollers, placed so
closely together as to permit the passage of the cotton, but not of
the seeds, which are consequently left behind. In the _saw-gin_, the
cotton is placed in a receiver, one side of which consists of a
grating of parallel wires, about an eighth of an inch apart; circular
saws, revolving on a common axis between these wires, entangle in
their teeth the cotton, and draw it from the seeds, which are too
large to pass between the wires.
How is it made into Calico, &c.?
The cotton having been separated from the seed, is spun by a machine
for the purpose. It is next woven, then dressed, and printed.
What is Cloth?
The word, in its general sense, includes all kinds of stuffs woven in
the loom, whether the threads be of wool, cotton, hemp, or flax.
To what is it more particularly applied?
To a web or tissue of woollen threads.
_Web_, any thing woven.
What is Wool?
The covering or hair of sheep. To prepare it for the weaver, it is
first shorn, washed, and dried, then carded or combed by machinery
into fibres or threads: formerly this was always performed by the
hand, by means of an instrument, called a comb, with several rows of
pointed teeth; this, though not much used now, is still occasionally
employed, except in large factories. This combing is repeated two or
three times, till it is sufficiently smooth and even for spinning.
Spinning or converting wool, or cotton, silk, &c. into thread, was
anciently performed by the distaff and spindle: these we find
mentioned in sacred history, and they have been used in all ages, and
in all countries yet discovered. The natives of India, and of some
other parts of the world, still employ this simple invention.
What was the next improvement?
The invention of the hand-wheel. In 1767, a machine called the
spinning-jenny was invented by a weaver named Hargreaves; but the
greatest improvement in the art of spinning was effected by Mr.
Arkwright, in 1768: these two inventions were combined, and again
improved upon in 1776; so that by the new plan, the material can be
converted into thread in a considerably shorter space of time than in
the ancient mode; leaving to man merely to feed the machine, and join
the threads when they break. The sheep, whose wool forms the material
for nearly all woollen clothing, came originally from Africa.
Does weaving differ according to the material used?
The principle of weaving is the same in every kind of fabric, and
consists in forming any kind of thread into a flat web, or cloth, by
interlacing one thread with another; the various appearances of the
manufacture arise as much from the modes in which the threads are
interwoven, as from the difference of material.
Is not the employment of Wool in the manufacture of Clothing of great
antiquity?
In the earliest records we possess of the arts of mankind, wool is
mentioned as forming a chief article in the manufacture of clothing;
it is spoken of in the Bible, as a common material for cloth, as early
as the time of Moses. The ancient Greeks and Romans are well known to
have possessed this art. At the beginning of the thirteenth century,
the manufacture was established in many parts of Europe, particularly
in Spain, from which country it extended itself to France and Italy.
There is no doubt that it was introduced into England by its
conquerors the Romans, a manufactory being established at Winchester,
sufficiently large to supply the Roman army.
_Manufactory_, a place where things are made or
manufactured; derived from the Latin _manus_, a hand, and
the verb _facio_, to do or make.
What circumstance contributed to the progress of this manufacture
among the English?
In 1330, the English, being desirous of improving their woollen
manufacture, invited over the Flemings, by the offer of various
privileges, to establish manufactories there. The skill of these
people soon effected a great improvement in the English fabrics, so
that there no longer remained any occasion for the exportation of
English wool into Flanders, to be manufactured into fine cloth; and a
law was passed by the government to forbid it. Both the cotton and
woollen manufactures have, of late years, arisen to great importance
in the United States.
What country affords the best Wool?
The wool of Germany is most esteemed at the present day: that of Spain
was formerly the most valuable, but the Spanish breed of sheep, having
been introduced into Germany, succeeded better there than in Spain,
and increased so rapidly, that the Spanish wool trade has greatly
diminished. Australia is one of the principal wool-growing countries
in the world, for the breed of sheep sent out to that country and
Tasmania has succeeded remarkably well.
What part of the world is meant by Australia?
A British Island in the South Pacific Ocean, comprising the Colonies
of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, and Western
Australia. It is the principal of the group of large islands, in the
Oriental Archipelago. Tasmania is another of the same group, separated
from New South Wales by a channel called Bass's Strait, and also
belongs to Great Britain.
What is meant by an Archipelago?
A part of a sea studded with numerous islands; but the term is more
particularly applied to that lying between Europe and Asia, which
contains the Greek Islands. The word is a corruption from the Greek,
signifying the Ægean Sea.
Is the Wool of the sheep all of one quality?
No; it varies according to the species of sheep, the soil on which
they are fed, and the part of the animal from which it is taken: the
chief distinction is between the long and the short wool; the long
wool is employed in the manufacture of carpets, crapes, blankets, &c.;
and the finer and shorter sorts for hosiery, broadcloths &c.
Where were Carpets originally made?
Carpets are of oriental origin, and are made of different sorts of
stuffs; they are woven in a variety of ways. Persian and Turkey
carpets are most esteemed; they are woven in a piece, in looms of a
very simple construction. Formerly the manufacture of these carpets
was confined to Persia and Turkey; but they are now successfully made,
both in Europe and the United States, &c. Great Britain is the
principal seat of the carpet manufacture of the world. Brussels,
Wilton, and Kidderminster carpets derive their names from the places
where they were invented.
Is not the art of weaving very ancient?
It appears to have been known from a period as early as the time of
Abraham and Jacob; its inventor is not known, but it is possible that
men took a lesson from the ingenious spider, which weaves its web
after the same manner. The ancient Egyptians appear to have brought it
to great perfection, and were even acquainted with the art of
interweaving colors after the manner of the Scottish plaid.
What is Baize?
A coarse, open, woollen stuff, with a long nap. It is chiefly made in
the United States, England, France, &c.
What is Linen?
There are various kinds of linen, made from cotton, flax, and hemp;
but the term is chiefly applied to that woven with the two last
mentioned. Linen means cloth of flax; hence its derivation from the
Latin word _linum_, flax.
What is Flax?
An annual plant, the fibres of which are beaten into threads, spun,
and afterwards woven into linen; it is extensively cultivated in the
United States, Russia, and some other countries of Europe. Hemp is a
plant of a similar nature, equally used with flax, in the manufacture
of linens. Russian hemp is cultivated to a larger extent than that of
any other country, and is considered the best that is grown.
How long has the use of Hemp and Flax been known?
Those plants are said to be natives of Persia, and introduced from
some parts of the East into Europe, over which it is now widely
distributed: it existed both in a wild and cultivated state, in some
parts of Russia, as early as five centuries before Christ These
products form a considerable article of exportation, besides the
quantity used in Russia itself; a considerable part is wrought into
linens, diapers, canvas, and other manufactures; and even the seeds
are exported, both in their natural state and as oil. In various parts
of Russia, hemp-seed oil and flax-seed (or linseed) oil are prepared
in very large quantities.
What is Diaper?
A sort of linen cloth, woven in flowers, and other figures; it is said
to have received its name from d'Iper, now Ypres, a town of Belgium,
situated on a river of the same name, where it was first made.
What is Holland?
A fine, close, even, linen cloth, used for sheets, &c. It obtained its
name from being principally made in Holland.
What is Canvas?
A hempen cloth, so loosely woven as to leave interstices between the
threads, in little squares. It is used for working in patterns upon it
with wools, &c.; by painters for a ground work on which they draw
their pictures; for tents, sails, and many other purposes. There are
several sorts, varying in the fineness of their texture.
What is Damask?
A sort of silken stuff, having some parts raised on its surface to
represent flowers or figures. It took its name from Damascus, in
Syria, whence it was first brought.
Is there not another sort of Damask?
Yes, made from linen; and so called because its large flowers resemble
those of damask roses. It was first made in Flanders, and is used for
table linen, &c.
What is Flannel?
A slight, loose, woollen stuff, used for warm clothing; it was
originally made in Wales, where it still continues to be manufactured
in great perfection.
CHAPTER IV.
COCOA, TODDY, CHERRIES, BARK, CORK, COCHINEAL, CLOVES, CINNAMON,
AND CASSIA.
Of what form is the tree which bears those large nuts, called Cocoa
nuts?
It is tall and straight, without branches, and generally about thirty
or forty feet high; at the top are twelve leaves, ten feet long, and
half a foot broad; above the leaves, grows a large excrescence in the
form of a cabbage, excellent to eat, but taking it off kills the tree.
The cocoa is a species of Palm.
Is not the Indian liquor called Toddy, produced from the Cocoa Tree?
Yes, between the leaves and the top arise several shoots about the
thickness of a man's arm, which, when cut, distil a white, sweet,
and agreeable liquor; while this liquor exudes, the tree yields no
fruit; but when the shoots are allowed to grow, it puts out a large
cluster or branch, on which the cocoa nuts hang, to the number of ten
or twelve.
_Distil_, to let fall in drops.
_Exude_, to force or throw out.
[Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL OF MILAN, ITALY.]
How often does this tree produce nuts?
Three times a year, the nuts being about the size of a man's head, and
of an oval form.
Of what countries is it a native?
Of Asia, the Indies, Africa, Arabia, the Islands of the Southern
Pacific, and the hottest parts of America.
What are the uses of this Tree?
The leaves of the tree are made into baskets; they are also used for
thatching houses: the fibrous bark of the nut, and the trunk of the
tree, are made into cordage, sails, and cloth; the shell, into
drinking bowls and cups; the kernel affords a wholesome food, and the
milk contained in the shell, a cooling liquor.
From what country was the Cherry Tree first brought?
From Cerasus, a city of Pontus, in Asia, on the southern borders of
the Black Sea; from which place this tree was brought to Rome, in the
year of that city 680, by Lucullus; it was conveyed, a hundred and
twenty-eight years after, into Great Britain, A.D. 55.
What is the meaning of A.D.?
A short way of writing Anno Domini, Latin words for _in the year of
our Lord_.
Who was Lucullus?
A renowned Roman general.
Is the wood of the Cherry Tree useful?
It is used in cabinet-making, for boxes, and other articles.
What is Bark?
The exterior part of trees, which serves them as a skin or covering.
_Exterior_, the outside.
Does it not undergo some change during the year?
Each year the bark of a tree divides, and distributes itself two
contrary ways, the outer part gives towards the skin, till it becomes
skin itself, and at length falls off; the inner part is added to the
wood. The bark is to the body of a tree, what the skin of our body is
to the flesh.
Of what use is Bark?
Bark is useful for many things: of the bark of willows and linden
trees, ropes are sometimes made. The Siamese make their cordage of the
cocoa tree bark, as do most of the Asiatic and African nations; in the
East Indies, they make the bark of a certain tree into a kind of
cloth; some are used in medicines, as the Peruvian bark for Quinine;
others in dyeing, as that of the alder; others in spicery, as
cinnamon, &c.; the bark of oak, in tanning; that of a kind of birch is
used by the Indians for making canoes.
What are Canoes?
Boats used by savages; they are made chiefly of the trunks of trees
dug hollow; and sometimes of pieces of bark fastened together.
How do the savages guide them?
With paddles, or oars; they seldom carry sails, and the loading is
laid in the bottom.
Are not the savages very dexterous in the management of them?
Yes, extremely so; they strike the paddles with such regularity, that
the canoes seem to fly along the surface of the water; at the same
time balancing the vessels with their bodies, to prevent their
overturning.
_Dexterous_, expert, nimble.
Do they leave their canoes in the water on their return from a voyage?
No, they draw them ashore, hang them up by the two ends, and leave
them to dry; they are generally so light as to be easily carried from
place to place.
Were not books once made of Bark?
Yes, the ancients wrote their books on the barks of many trees, as on
those of the ash and the lime tree, &c.
Which part did they use?
Not the exterior or outer bark, but the inner and finer, which is of
so durable a texture, that there are manuscripts written on it which
are still extant, though more than a thousand years old.
Is it not also used in Manure?
Yes, especially that of the oak; but the best oak bark is used in
tanning.
What is Cork?
The thick, spongy, external bark of the Cork Tree, a species of oak.
There are two varieties of this tree, the broad-leaved and the narrow:
it is an evergreen, and grows to the height of thirty feet. The Cork
Tree attains to a very great age.
Where is the Tree found?
In Spain, Italy, France, and many other countries. The true cork is
the produce of the broad-leaved tree.
What are its uses?
Cork is employed in various ways, but especially for stopping vessels
containing liquids, and, on account of its buoyancy in water, in the
construction of life boats. It is also used in the manufacture of life
preservers and cork jackets. The greatest quantities are brought from
Catalonia, in Spain. The uses of Cork were well known to the ancients.
To what particular use did the Egyptians put it?
They made coffins of it, lined with a resinous composition, which
preserved the bodies of the dead uncorrupted.
What is Cochineal?
A drug used by the dyers, for dyeing crimsons and scarlets; and for
making carmine, a brilliant red used in painting, and several of the
arts.
Is it a plant?
No, it is an insect. The form of the Cochineal is oval; it is about
the size of a small pea, and has six legs armed with claws, and a
trunk by which it sucks its nourishment.
What is its habitation?
It breeds in a fruit resembling a pear; the plant which bears it is
about five or six feet high; at the top of the fruit grows a red
flower, which when full blown, falls upon it; the fruit then appears
full of little red insects, having very small wings. These are the
Cochineals.
How are they caught?
By spreading a cloth under the plant, and shaking it with poles, till
the insects quit it and fly about, which they cannot do many minutes,
but soon tumble down dead into the cloth; where they are left till
quite dry.
Does the insect change its color when it is dead?
When the insect flies, it is red; when it is fallen, black; and when
first dried, it is greyish; it afterwards changes to a purplish grey,
powdered over with a kind of white dust.
From what countries is the Cochineal brought?
From the West Indies, Jamaica, Mexico, and other parts of America.
What are Cloves?
The dried flower-buds of the Clove Tree, anciently a native of the
Moluccas; but afterwards transplanted by the Dutch (who traded in
them,) to other islands, particularly that of Ternate. It is now found
in most of the East Indian Islands.
Describe the Clove Tree.
It is a large handsome tree of the myrtle kind; its leaves resemble
those of the laurel. Though the Clove Tree is cultivated to a great
extent, yet, so easily does the fruit on falling take root, that it
thus multiplies itself, in many instances, without the trouble of
culture. The clove when it first begins to appear is white, then
green, and at last hard and red; when dried, it turns yellow, and then
dark brown.
What are its qualities?
The Clove is the hottest, and most acrid of aromatic substances; one
of our most wholesome spices, and of great use in medicine; it also
yields an abundance of oil, which is much used by perfumers, and in
medicine.
_Acrid_, of a hot, biting taste.
_Aromatic_, fragrant, having an agreeable odor.
What is Cinnamon?
An agreeable, aromatic spice, the bark of a tree of the laurel kind;
the Cinnamon tree grows in the Southern parts of India; but most
abundantly in the island of Ceylon, where it is extensively
cultivated; its flowers are white, resembling those of the lilac in
form, and are very fragrant; they are borne in large clusters. The
tree sends up numerous shoots the third or fourth year after it has
been planted; these shoots are planted out, when nearly an inch in
thickness.
How is the bark procured?
By stripping it off from these shoots, after they have been cut down;
the trees planted for the purpose of obtaining cinnamon, throw out a
great number of branches, apparently from the same root, and are not
allowed to rise higher than ten feet; but in its native uncultivated
state, the cinnamon tree usually rises to the height of twenty or
thirty feet.
How is the Cinnamon Tree cultivated?
By seed, sown during the rains; from shoots cut from large trees; and
by transplanting old stumps. The cinnamon tree, in its wild state, is
said to be propagated by means of a kind of pigeons, that feed on its
fruit; in carrying which to their nests, the seeds fall out, and,
dropping in various places, take root, spring up, and become trees.
_Propagated_, spread, extended, multiplied.
What else is obtained from this tree?
The bark, besides being used as a spice, yields an oil highly
esteemed, both as a medicine and as a perfume; the fruit by boiling
also produces an oil, used by the natives for burning in lamps; as
soon as it hardens, it becomes a solid substance like wax, and is
formed into candles. Camphor is extracted from the root. Cassia is
cinnamon of an inferior kind.
CHAPTER V.
BOMBAZINE, CRAPE, CAMLET, CAMBRIC, LACE, SILK, VELVET, AND
MOHAIR.
What is Bombazine?
A stuff composed of silk and wool woven together in a loom. It was
first made at Milan, and thence sent abroad; great quantities are now
made in England and other countries.
Where is Milan situated?
In Italy, and is noted for its cathedral.
For what is Bombazine used?
For dresses. Black bombazine is worn entirely for mourning. The
original bombazine has, however, become much less used than formerly,
on account of the numerous newly-invented fabrics of finer or coarser
qualities, composed of the same materials mixed in various degrees, as
Mousselines de laine, Challis, &c.
What is Crape?
A light, transparent stuff, resembling gauze, made of raw silk very
loosely woven, or of wool; by raw silk is meant, silk in the state in
which it is taken from the silk worm.
Where was Crape first made?
At Bologna, a city of Italy.
What city of France was long celebrated for its manufacture?
Lyons, the second city of France, where there are large silk
manufactories. Great quantities are also made in England, principally
in the city of Norwich, which has long been distinguished for the
beauty of its crapes.
What is Camlet?
A stuff made sometimes of wool, sometimes of silk and hair, especially
that of goats. The oriental camlet is made of the pure hair of a sort
of goat, a native of Angora, a city of Natolia, in Turkey. The
European camlets are made of a mixture of woollen thread and hair.
What countries are most noted for them?
England, France, Holland, and Flanders; the city of Brussels, in
Belgium, exceeds them all in the beauty and quality of its camlets;
those of England are the next.
What is Cambric?
A species of linen made of flax; it is very fine and white.
From whence did it take its name?
From Cambray, a large and celebrated city of French Flanders, where it
was first made; it is now made at other places in France; and also in
England, Scotland, Ireland, the United States, &c.
What is Lace?
A work composed of many threads of fine linen or silk, interwoven one
with another according to some particular pattern. Belgium, France,
and England are the principal countries in which this manufacture is
carried on; vast quantities of the finest laces were formerly made in
Flanders.
From what is Silk produced?
From the silk-worm, an insect not more remarkable for the precious
matter it furnishes, than for the many forms it assumes before and
after it envelopes itself in the beautiful ball, the silken threads of
which form the elegant texture which is so much worn.
_Texture_, a web or substance woven.
What are the habits of this insect, and on what does it feed?
After bursting from the egg, it becomes a large worm or caterpillar of
a yellowish white color, (which is its first state;) this caterpillar
feeds on the leaves of the mulberry tree, till, arriving at maturity,
it winds itself up in a silken bag or case, called a cocoon, about the
size and shape of a pigeon's egg, and becomes a chrysalis; in which
state it lies without signs of life; in about ten days it eats its way
out of its case, a perfect butterfly, which lays a number of eggs and
then dies. In the warmth of the summer weather, these eggs are
hatched, and become worms, as their parents did at first.
_Maturity_, ripeness, perfection
How much silk is each ball said to contain?
Each ball consists of a very fine, soft, bright, delicate thread,
which being wound off, extends in length six miles.
What is meant by Chrysalis?
The second state into which the insect passes before it comes to be a
butterfly. The maggot or worm having ceased to eat, fixes itself in
some place till its skin separates, and discovers a horny, oblong
body, which is the chrysalis.
Where was Silk first made?
The culture and manufacture of silk was originally confined to China.
The Greeks, under Alexander the Great, brought home, among other
Eastern luxuries, wrought silks from Persia, about 323, B.C.
It was not long unknown to the Romans, although it was so rare, that
it was even sold weight for weight with gold. The Emperor Aurelian,
who died in 275, B.C. refused the Empress, his wife, a suit
of silk which she solicited with much earnestness, merely on account
of its dearness. Heliogabalus, the Emperor, who died half a century
before Aurelian, was the first who wore a _holosericum_ or garment all
of silk.
Who introduced the Silk Worm itself into Europe?
Two monks, engaged as missionaries in China, obtained a quantity of
silk worms' eggs, which they concealed in a hollow cane, and conveyed
in safety to Constantinople in 552; the eggs were hatched in the
proper season by the warmth of manure, and the worms fed with the
leaves of the wild mulberry tree. These worms in due time spun their
silk, and propagated under the care of the monks, who also instructed
the Romans in the whole process of manufacturing their production.
From the insects thus produced, proceeded all the silk worms which
have since been reared in Europe, and the western parts of Asia. The
mulberry tree was then eagerly planted, and on this, their natural
food, they were successfully reared in Greece; and the manufacture was
established at Thebes, Athens, and Corinth, in particular. The
Venetians, soon after this time commencing a trade with the Greeks,
supplied all the Western parts of Europe with silks for many
centuries.
Where were the cities of Thebes and Athens situated?
Thebes was an ancient city of Beotia, in Greece, founded by Cadmus, a
Phenician, though of Egyptian parentage. Sailing from the coast of
Phenicia, he arrived in Beotia, and built the city, calling it Thebes,
from the city of that name in Egypt. To this prince is ascribed the
invention of sixteen letters of the Greek Alphabet. Athens was the
capital of Attica, founded by Cecrops, an Egyptian. It was the seat of
learning and the arts, and has produced some of the most celebrated
warriors, statesmen, orators, poets, and sculptors in the world. Since
the emancipation of Greece from the cruel bondage of its conquerors
the Turks, who had oppressed it for three centuries, Athens has been
chosen as its capital, and is still a considerable town adorned with
splendid ruins of the beautiful buildings it once possessed. Thebes
and Corinth, another celebrated city, are now only villages.
_Warrior_, a soldier.
_Statesmen_, men versed in the arts of government.
_Orator_, a public speaker.
_Poet_, one who composes poetry.
_Sculptor_, one who cuts figures in stone, marble, or ivory.
Who were the Venetians?
Inhabitants of Venice, a city of Italy.
Did this manufacture continue to be confined to the Greeks and
Venetians?
By no means. The rest of Italy, and Spain, by degrees learnt the art
from some manufactories in Sicily; and about the reign of Francis the
First, the French became masters of it. It, however, long remained a
rarity; their King, Henry the Second, is supposed to have worn the
first pair of knit silk stockings. The Fourth Henry encouraged the
planting of mulberry trees; his successors also did the same, and the
produce of silk in France is now very considerable.
When was the manufacture of silk introduced into England?
There was a company of silk women in England as early as the year
1455; but they probably were merely employed in needlework of silk and
thread, for Italy supplied England with the broad manufacture during
the chief part of the fifteenth century. The great advantage this new
manufacture afforded, made King James the First very desirous for its
introduction into England, particularly in 1608, when it was
recommended, in very earnest terms, to plant mulberry trees for the
rearing of silk worms; but unhappily without effect. However, towards
the latter end of this reign, the broad silk manufacture was
introduced, and with great success. The revocation of the Edict of
Nantes contributed greatly to its promotion, by the number of French
workmen who took refuge in England; to them the English are indebted
for the art of manufacturing many elegant kinds of silks, satins,
velvets, &c., which had formerly been imported from abroad up to the
year 1718. The silk manufacture has also been successfully introduced
into some portions of the United States.
_Revocation_, act of recalling, repeal.
_Imported_, brought into.
What was the Edict of Nantes?
A law made in favor of the Protestants, the repealing of which drove
many of their most skilful workmen to take refuge in England. They
were kindly received, and settled in Spitalfields, and many other
parts of England as well as Ireland, where they carried on a
flourishing and ingenious manufacture.
Were the attempts to rear Silk Worms in England successful?
No; after many trials, all of which failed, attention was directed to
the establishments for procuring both raw and wrought silks, in the
settlements in India belonging to Britain; this was attended with
complete success, the climate being extremely favorable, and the price
of labor cheap. Raw silk is imported in quantities from India, China,
Italy, &c.
How is the Silk taken from the Worm?
The people who are employed in the care of these insects collect the
golden balls from off the mulberry trees, (to the leaves of which the
insects glue their silk) and put them into warm water, that the
threads may unfasten and wind off more easily; having taken off the
coarse woolly part which covers the balls, they take twelve or
fourteen threads at a time, and wind them off into skeins. In order to
prepare this beautiful material for the hand of the weaver to be
wrought into silks, stuffs, brocades, satins, velvets, ribbons, &c.,
it is spun, reeled, milled, bleached, and dyed.
_Milled_, worked in a kind of mill.
_Bleached_, whitened.
What is Velvet?
A rich kind of stuff, all silk, covered on the outside with a close,
short, fine, soft shag; the wrong side being very strong and close.
The principal number, and the best velvets, were made in France and
Italy; others in Holland; they are now brought to great perfection in
England. An inferior kind is made by mixing cotton with the silk.
Velvet has been known in Europe for some centuries, but its
manufacture was long confined to some of the chief cities of Italy.
From that country the French learned the art, and greatly improved it.
Whence is the word Velvet derived?
From the Italian word _velluto_, signifying velvet, which comes from
_vellus_, hair or fleece.
What is Mohair?
The hair of a kind of goat, common about Angora, in Turkey. It is used
in the manufacture of various kinds of stuffs, shawls, &c.
Is there not another animal much celebrated for the material it
furnishes in the making of shawls?
Yes; the Thibet goat. The wool is sent to Cashmere, where it is spun
and dyed. Cashmere is situated in the north-west extremity of India,
and has long been celebrated for the beautiful and valuable shawls
bearing its name which are manufactured there. The goats are beautiful
creatures, with long, fine, wavy hair, reaching nearly to the ground,
so as almost to conceal their legs. The material of which the shawls
are made is a fine silky down, which grows under the long hair, next
to the skin.
CHAPTER VI.
CURRANTS, RAISINS, FIGS, RICE, SUGAR, SUGAR CANDY, &C., SAGO,
MILLET, GINGER, NUTMEG, MACE, PIMENTO OR ALLSPICE, PEPPER, AND CAYENNE
PEPPER.
What are Currants?
A kind of small raisins or dried grapes.
Whence are they brought?
From several islands of the Archipelago, particularly Zante and
Cephalonia; and from the Isthmus of Corinth, in Greece.
Do they grow on bushes like our Currants?
No, on vines like other grapes, except that the leaves are somewhat
thicker, and the grapes much smaller: they have no pips, and are of a
deep red, or rather black color.
When are they gathered, and how are they dried?
They are gathered in August, and laid on the ground in heaps till dry;
they are then cleaned, and put into magazines, from which they are
taken and packed in barrels for exportation.
What do you mean by Exportation?
The act of conveying goods for sale from one country to another.
What are Raisins?
Grapes prepared by drying them in the sun, or by the heat of an oven.
Raisins of Damascus, so called from the capital city of Syria, near
which they are cultivated, are very large, flat, and wrinkled on the
surface; soft and juicy inside, and nearly an inch long. Raisins of
the sun, or jar raisins, so called from being imported in jars, are
all dried by the heat of the sun; they are of a reddish blue color,
and are the produce of Spain, whence the finest and best raisins are
brought. There are several other sorts, named either from the place in
which they grow, or the kind of grape of which they are made, as those
of Malaga, Valencia, &c.
In what manner are they dried?
The common way of drying grapes for raisins, is to tie two or three
bunches of them together while yet on the vine, and dip them into a
lye made of hot wood-ashes, mixed with a little olive oil. This makes
them shrink and wrinkle: after this they are cut from the branches
which supported them, but left on the vine for three or four days,
separated on sticks, in an upright position, to dry at leisure.
Different modes, however, are adopted, according to the quality of the
grape. The commonest kinds are dried in hot ovens, but the best way is
that in which the grapes are cut when fully ripe, and dried by the
heat of the sun, on a floor of hard earth or stone.
_Lye_, a liquor made from wood-ashes; of great use in
medicine, bleaching, sugar works, &c.
What are Figs?
A soft, luscious fruit, the produce of the fig-tree. The best figs are
brought from Turkey, but they are also imported from Italy, Spain, and
the southern part of France. The islands of the Archipelago yield an
inferior sort in great abundance. In this country they are sometimes
planted in a warm situation in gardens, but, being difficult to ripen,
they do not arrive at perfection. The figs sent from abroad are dried
by the heat of the sun, or in furnaces for the purpose.
_Luscious_, sweet to excess, cloying.
What is Rice?
A useful and nutritious grain, cultivated in immense quantities in
India, China, and most eastern countries; in the West Indies, Central
America, and the United States; and in southern Europe. It forms the
principal food of the people of eastern and southern Asia, and is more
extensively consumed than any other species of grain, not even
excepting wheat.
_Nutritious_, wholesome, good for food.
Does it not require a great deal of moisture?
Yes, it is usually planted in moist soils, and near rivers, where the
ground can be overflowed after it is come up. The Chinese water their
rice-fields by means of movable mills, placed as occasion requires,
upon any part of the banks of a river; the water is raised in buckets
to a proper height, and afterwards conveyed in channels to the
destined places.
What is Sugar?
A sweet, agreeable substance, manufactured chiefly from the Sugar
Cane,[1] a native of the East and West Indies, South America and the
South Sea Islands; it is much cultivated in all tropical countries.
The earliest authentic accounts of sugar, are about the time of the
Crusades,[2] when it appears to have been purchased from the Saracens,
and imported into Europe.
[Footnote 1: Most of the sugar in Europe is made from beets.]
[Footnote 2: See Chapter XVII., article Navigation.]
_Authentic_, true, certain.
_Crusades_, holy wars.
_Saracens_, Turks or Arabs.
How is it prepared?
The canes are crushed between large rollers in a mill, and the juice
collected into a large vessel placed to receive it; it is then boiled,
and placed in pans to cool, when it becomes imperfectly crystallized,
in which state we use it. This is called raw or soft sugar: loaf
sugar, or the hard white sugar, is the raw brown sugar, prepared by
refining it till all foreign matter is removed.
Is the Sugar Cane the only vegetable that produces Sugar?
All vegetables contain more or less sugar, but the plant in which it
most abounds is the sugar-cane. In the United States, a large quantity
of sugar is prepared from the sap of the Sugar Maple Tree. The trees
are tapped at the proper season by a cut being made in the bark, and
the juice runs into a vessel placed to receive it; it is then prepared
in the same manner as the juice of the sugar cane.
What is Sugar Candy?
Sugar purified and crystallized.
What is Barley Sugar?
Sugar boiled till it is brittle, and cast on a stone anointed with oil
of sweet almonds, and then formed into twisted sticks.
What is Sago?
A substance prepared from the pith of the Sago Palm, which grows
naturally in various parts of Africa and the Indies. The pith, which
is even eatable in its natural state, is taken from the trunk of the
tree, and thrown into a vessel placed over a horse-hair sieve; water
is then thrown over the mass, and the finer parts of the pith pass
through the sieve; the liquor thus obtained is left to settle. The
clear liquor is then drawn off, and what remains is formed into
grains by being passed through metal dishes, with numerous small
holes; it is next dried by the action of heat, and in this state it is
exported. The Sago Palm also produces sugar.
What is Millet, and in what countries does it grow?
Millet is an esculent grain, originally brought from the Eastern
countries. It is cultivated in many parts of Europe, but most
extensively in Egypt, Syria, China, and Hindostan, whence we are
furnished with it, it being rarely cultivated among us, except as a
curiosity.
_Esculent_, good for food.
For what is Millet used?
It is in great request amongst the Germans for puddings; for which it
is sometimes used amongst us. The Italians make loaves and cakes of
it.
What is Ginger?
The root of a plant cultivated in the East and West Indies, and in
America; it is a native of South-eastern Asia and the adjoining
islands.
Describe its nature and use.
It is a warm aromatic, much used in medicine and cookery. The Indians
eat the root when green as a salad, chopping it small with other
herbs; they also make a candy of it with sugar. The ginger sold in the
shops here is dried, which is done by placing the roots in the heat of
the sun or in ovens, after being dug out of the ground. Quantities not
only of the dried root, but also of the candied sugar, are imported.
What are Nutmegs?
A delicate aromatic fruit or spice, brought from the East Indies. The
nutmeg tree greatly resembles our pear tree, and produces a kind
of nut, which bears the same name as the tree.
[Illustration: GLASS BLOWING AT THE GLASS-WORKS, PITTSBURGH, PA.]
What is the appearance of the Nutmeg?
Its form is round, and its smell agreeable. The nutmeg is inclosed
in four different covers; the first, a thick fleshy coat, (like our
walnut,) which opens of itself when ripe; under this lies a thin
reddish network, of an agreeable smell and aromatic taste, called
mace; this wraps up the shell, which opens as the fruit grows. The
shell is the third cover, which is hard, thin, and blackish; under
this is a greenish film of no use; and in the last you find the
nutmeg, which is the kernel of the fruit.
What are its uses?
The nutmeg is much used in our food, and is of excellent virtue as a
medicine. It also yields an oil of great fragrance.
Is the Mace used as a spice?
Yes, it is separated from the shell of the nutmeg, and dried in the
sun. It is brought over in flakes of a yellow color, smooth and
net-like, as you see it in the shops. Its taste is warm, bitterish,
and rather pungent; its smell, aromatic. It is used both in food and
medicine, as the nutmeg, and also yields an oil.
_Pungent_, of a hot, biting taste.
What is Pimento or Allspice?
The dried unripe berry or fruit of a tree growing in great abundance
in Jamaica, particularly on the northern side of that island, on hilly
spots, near the coast; it is also a native of both Indies. The Pimento
Tree is a West Indian species of Myrtle; it grows to the height of
twenty or thirty feet; the leaves are all of a deep, shining green,
and the blossom consists of numerous branches of small, white,
aromatic flowers, which render its appearance very striking; there is
scarcely in the vegetable world any tree more beautiful than a young
Pimento about the month of July, when it is in full bloom.
When is the time to gather the spice?
About the month of September, not long after the blossoms are fallen,
the berries are gathered by the hand; one laborer on the tree,
employed in gathering the small branches, will give employment to
three below (who are generally women and children) in picking the
berries. They are then spread out thinly, and exposed to the sun at
its rising and setting for some days; when they begin to dry, they are
frequently winnowed, and laid on cloths to preserve them better from
rain and dew; by this management they become wrinkled, and change from
green to a deep reddish brown color. Great quantities are annually
imported.
What are its uses?
It forms a pleasant addition to flavor food; it also yields an
agreeable essential oil, and is accounted the best and mildest of
common spices.
_Essential_, pure; extracted so as to contain all the
virtues of the spice in a very small compass.
Why is it called Allspice?
Because it has been supposed to combine the flavor of cloves, nutmegs,
and cinnamon; the French call it _round clove_, from its round shape,
and the taste being somewhat like that spice.
What is Pepper?
The product of a creeping shrub, growing in several parts of the East
Indies, Asia, and America.
In what manner does Pepper grow, and what part of the shrub is used?
Pepper is the fruit of this shrub, and grows in bunches or clusters,
at first green; as it ripens it becomes reddish, until having been
exposed for some time to the heat of the sun, (or probably gathered
before perfectly ripe,) it becomes black, as in the condition we have
it. There are two sorts, the black and the white.
What is the White Pepper?
The white pepper is merely the black deprived of its outside skin. For
this purpose the finest red berries are selected, and put in baskets
to steep, either in running water, or in pits dug for the purpose,
near the banks of rivers. Sometimes they are only buried in the
ground. In any of these situations, they swell and burst their skins,
from which, when dry, they are carefully separated by rubbing between
the hands, or fanning.
What is Cayenne Pepper?
The dried fruit of a plant called bird pepper, a native of both
Indies. It is more pungent than the other sorts.
CHAPTER VII.
GLASS, MIRRORS, EARTHENWARE, PORCELAIN, NEEDLES, PINS, PAPER,
PRINTING, PARCHMENT, AND VELLUM.
What is Glass?
A transparent, solid, brittle, factitious body, produced by fusing
sand with an alkali. The essential ingredients of glass are silex and
potash, or soda; a few other substances are sometimes added. Silex is
found nearly pure in rock crystal, flint, and other varieties of
quartz; for the manufacture of the better kinds of glass in this
country, it is generally obtained from sand, especially the white sand
of New Jersey.
_Factitious_, made by art, not found in a state of nature.
What is Potash?
The saline matter obtained from the ashes of wood, by causing water to
pass through them; the water imbibes the salt, which is then obtained
from it by evaporation. When purified by calcination, it is termed
pearlash. In countries where there are vast forests, as in America and
Russia, it is manufactured on a very large scale.
What can you say of the origin of Glass?
The period of its invention is quite unknown. Pliny relates that some
merchants, driven by a storm to the coast of Phenicia, near the river
Belus, made a large fire on the sand to dress some food, using as
fuel some of the plant Kali, which grew there in great abundance; an
imperfect glass was thus formed by the melting of the sand and ashes
together. This production was picked up by a Syrian merchant, who,
attracted by its great beauty, examined the cause of its origin, and,
after many attempts, succeeded in its manufacture.
Who was Pliny?
A celebrated Roman naturalist and historian.
At what place was Glass first made?
Some authors mention Sidon in Syria, which became famous for glass and
glass-houses; but others maintain that the first glass-houses noticed
in history were built at Tyre; which, they add, was the only place
where glass was made for many ages. It is certain that the art was
known to the Egyptians.
What is Phenicia?
A sub-division of Syria in Asia.
What is an author?
A person who writes a book.
What is signified by a glass-house?
A building erected for the making and working of glass.
What countries had glass windows first?
Italy, then France and England; they began to be common about the year
1180.
In what year, and where, was the making of glass bottles begun?
In 1557, in London. The first glass plates for mirrors and
coach-windows were made at Lambeth, in 1673.
What is a Mirror?
A body which exhibits the images of objects presented to it by
reflection. The word mirror is more peculiarly used to signify a
smooth surface of glass, tinned and quicksilvered at the back,[3]
which reflects the images of objects placed before it.
[Footnote 3: See Chapter XII., article Mercury.]
Are they a modern invention?
The use of mirrors is very ancient; mention is made of brazen mirrors
or looking-glasses in Exodus, the 38th chapter and 8th verse. Some
modern commentators will not admit the mirrors themselves to have been
of brass, but of glass set or framed in brass; but the most learned
among the Jewish rabbins say that in those times the mirrors made use
of by the Hebrew women in dressing their heads were of metal, and that
the devout women mentioned in this passage made presents to Moses of
all their mirrors to make the brazen laver for the Tabernacle. It
might likewise be proved that the ancient Greeks made use of brazen
mirrors, from many passages in the ancient poets.
_Commentators_, explainers of passages in the Bible, &c.
_Rabbins_, doctors among the Jews, their learned men or
teachers.
What nation invented the large looking-glass plates now in use?
The French.
What city of Italy excelled all Europe for many years in the making of
fine glass?
Venice. The manufacture of fine glass was first introduced into
England by Venetian artists in 1078.
Of what is Earthenware composed?
Of clay, and those earths which are capable of being kneaded into a
paste easily receiving any form, and acquiring solidity by exposure to
fire: sand, chalk, and flint are likewise mixed with clay.
In what manner is it formed into such a variety of shapes?
The flint or sand, and soft clay, are mixed together in various
proportions for the different kinds of ware; this paste is afterwards
beaten till it becomes fit for being formed at the wheel into plates,
dishes, basins, &c. These are then put into a furnace and baked; after
which they are glazed.
What nation so greatly excelled in the manufacture of a beautiful
species of Earthenware?
The Chinese,--who, as far as can be ascertained, were its inventors.
Porcelain is a fine sort of earthenware, chiefly made in China, whence
it was called China or China-ware; it is also brought from many parts
of the East, especially from Japan, Siam, Surat, and Persia. The art
of making porcelain was one of those in which Europe had been excelled
by oriental nations; but for many years past earthenwares have been
made in different parts of Europe, so like the oriental, that they
have acquired the name of porcelain. The first European porcelains
were made in Saxony and France, and afterwards in England, Germany,
and Italy, all of which differed from those of Japan and China, but
each possessing its peculiar character. They are now brought to great
perfection in Europe, particularly in England, France and Prussia.
Before the invention of Earthenware, what supplied its place to the
early inhabitants of the world?
The more civilized the inhabitants of any country became, the more
they would perceive the convenience of possessing vessels of various
descriptions for holding or preparing their food; some of the objects
which first presented themselves would be the larger kinds of shells;
and, in hot climates, the hard coverings of the cocoa-nut or gourd. In
some cases the skins of beasts were used, as they still are in the
East, where they are sewed together, and formed into a kind of bottle
to hold milk, wine, &c.; but the people of colder climates would not
be able to avail themselves of these natural productions, and would be
obliged to make use of other substances.
What, then, would they employ?
Clay, which in many countries is found in great abundance, from its
adhesive property, and its retaining its form when dry, and becoming
insoluble in water after having been baked in the fire, would
naturally attract the attention of an improving people: from this it
arises that the early remains of culinary and other vessels which have
been discovered have been formed of this material. Among the remains
of ancient Egypt, numerous vessels have been found formed of common
clay baked in the fire; and, though of rude workmanship, extremely
elegant in form.
_Adhesive_, sticky; apt or tending to adhere.
_Insoluble_, not capable of being dissolved.
_Culinary_, belonging to cooking or domestic purposes.
Of what are Needles made?
Of steel; and though exceedingly cheap, they go through a great number
of operations before they are brought to perfection. It was in the
reign of Queen Elizabeth that the English learnt the art of making
needles.
Of what are Pins made?
Of brass wire, blanched with tin. They are manufactured in England,
France, the United States, and other countries. Though there is
scarcely any commodity cheaper than pins, there is no other which
passes through the hands of a greater number of workmen; more than
twenty persons being successively employed in the manufacture of each,
from the drawing of the brass wire to the sticking of the pin in the
paper. Pins are supposed to have been made in England about 1543, or
even earlier. Before this art was invented, the ladies made use of
wooden skewers.
_Blanched_, whitened.
Of what is Paper made?
Of linen and cotton rags beaten to a pulp in water; also from straw,
wood, and many plants.
What materials were used for writing, before the invention of Paper?
Various were the materials on which mankind in different ages and
countries contrived to write: stones, bricks, the leaves of herbs and
trees, and their rinds or barks; tablets of wood, wax, and ivory;
plates of lead, silk, linen rolls, &c. At length the Egyptian paper
made of the papyrus, was invented; then parchment; and lastly, paper
manufactured of cotton or linen rags. There are few sorts of plants
which have not at some time been used for paper and books. In Ceylon,
for instance, the leaves of the talipot; in India, the leaves of the
palm (with which they commonly covered their houses,) were used for
books. In the East Indies, the leaves of the plantain tree, dried in
the sun, were used for the same purpose. In China, paper is made of
the inner bark of the mulberry, the bamboo, the elm, the cotton, and
other trees.
What is Papyrus?
A large rush, chiefly growing in Egypt, on the banks of the Nile. The
ancient Egyptians made sails, ropes, mats, blankets, and canvas, of
the stalks and fibres of the papyrus. Their priests also wore shoes
made of it; and even sugar was extracted from this plant. Moses, the
deliverer raised by God to rescue the Israelites from the bondage of
Egypt, was exposed to the Nile in a basket of papyrus. The plant is
now, however, exceedingly scarce.
Where was the first Paper Mill erected in England?
At Dartford, by a German named Spilman, in 1588. The only sort made,
however, was the coarse brown; and it was not till 1690, when the
French protestant refugees settled in England, that their own
paper-makers began to make white writing and printing paper. The
manufacture has been brought to great perfection, both for beauty and
substance, in England and the United States.
_Protestant_, a name given in Germany to those who adhered
to the doctrines of the apostate monk, Martin Luther,
because they protested against a decree of Charles V. and
applied to a general council.
_Refugee_, from refuge, a place of safety from danger; an
asylum. Here it more particularly means those French
Protestants who quit their homes and sought other countries,
after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, which deprived
them of their religious liberty.
[Illustration: THE DOME OF PISA, ITALY; WITH THE FAMOUS LEANING TOWER,
IN THE DISTANCE.]
Is it known to whom we are indebted for the invention of Linen Paper?
Not exactly. It has long been disputed among the learned when, and
by whom, it was invented; some authors say it was discovered by the
Germans, others by the Italians; others ascribe it to some refugee
Greeks at Basil, who took the idea from the making of cotton paper in
their own country; some, that the Arabs first introduced it into
Europe. Perhaps the Chinese have the best title to the invention,
inasmuch as they have for many ages made paper, and in some provinces
of the same materials as are now used by us in its manufacture.
In what place was the art of Printing first practised?
Who were the inventors of Printing, in what city, and in what year it
was begun, has long been a subject of great dispute. Mentz, Harlem,
and Strasburg, cities of Germany, all lay claim to the invention, but
Mentz seems to have the best title to it.
What was the first Book that was printed from metal types?
A copy of the Holy Scriptures, which made its appearance between the
years 1450 and 1452.
Who introduced Printing into England?
William Caxton, a merchant of London, who had acquired a knowledge of
it in his travels abroad.
Of what does Printing consist?
Of the art of taking impressions with ink, from movable characters and
figures made of metal, &c., upon paper or parchment.
What is Parchment?
Sheep or goat's skin, prepared after a peculiar manner, which renders
it proper for several uses, especially for writing on, and for the
covering of books. The ancients seem to have used the skins of animals
as a writing material, from a remote period.
From what is the word Parchment taken?
From Pergamena, the ancient name of this manufacture, which it is said
to have taken from the country of Pergamus; and to Eumenes, king of
that country, its invention is usually ascribed, though in reality,
that prince appears to have been the improver, rather than the
inventor of parchment; since some accounts refer its invention to a
still earlier period of time. Herodotus, an ancient Greek historian,
who lived about 450 years before Christ, relates that the ancient
Ionians made use of sheep and goat-skins in writing, many ages before
the time of Eumenes; the Persians of old, too, wrote all their records
on skins, and probably such skins were prepared and dressed for that
purpose, after a manner not unlike our parchments, though not so
artificially.
Who were the Ionians?
The inhabitants of Ionia, an ancient country in the western part of
Asia Minor.
In what manner is Parchment now prepared?
The sheep-skins are smeared over with lime[4] on the fleshy side,
folded, laid in heaps, and thus left for some days; they are next
stretched very tight on wooden frames, after having been washed,
drained, and half dried. The flesh is then carefully taken off with
iron instruments constructed on purpose, and the skin cleansed from
the remaining hairs that adhere to it. After having gone through
several operations till it is perfectly clean and smooth, it is fit
for writing upon.
[Footnote 4: See Chapter XVI., article Lime.]
What are the uses of Parchment?
Parchment is of great use for writings which are to be preserved, on
account of its great durability; the writing on it remaining perfect
for a great number of years. It is also used for the binding of books,
and various other purposes.
What is Vellum?
A finer sort of parchment than the former, but prepared in the same
manner, except that it is not passed through the lime-pit. It is made
of the skins of very young calves: there is also a still finer sort
made of the skins of sucking lambs, or kids; this is called _virgin_
parchment, and is very thin, fine, and white, and is used for
fancy-work, such as ladies' fans, &c.
CHAPTER VIII.
CAPERS, ALMONDS, ORANGES, LEMONS, CITRONS, LIMES, OLIVES, OILS,
MELONS, TAMARINDS, AND DATES.
What are Capers?
The full-grown flower-buds of the Caper Tree, a small shrub, generally
found growing out of the fissures of rocks, or among rubbish, on old
walls and ruins, giving them a gay appearance with its large white
flowers. It is a native of Italy: it is also common in the south of
France, where it is much cultivated.
How are they prepared, and for what are they used?
They are gathered, and dried in the shade; then infused in vinegar, to
which salt is added; after which they are put in barrels, to be used
as a pickle, chiefly in sauces.
What are frequently substituted for Capers?
The buds of broom pickled in the same manner, or the berries of the
nasturtium, an American annual plant, with pungent fruit.
What are Almonds?
The nut of the Almond Tree, a species of the peach, growing in most of
the southern parts of Europe; there are two kinds, the bitter and the
sweet.
What are their qualities and use?
The sweet almonds are of a soft, grateful taste, and much used by the
confectioner in numerous preparations of sweet-meats, cookery, &c.
Both sorts yield an oil, and are useful in medicine.
Of what country is the Orange a native?
It is a native of China, India, and most tropical countries; but has
long been produced in great perfection in the warmer parts of Europe
and America. Oranges are imported in immense quantities every year,
from the Azores, Spain, Portugal, Italy, &c. They are brought over in
chests and boxes, packed separately in paper to preserve them. The
oranges in common use with us are the bitter or Seville, the China or
sweet orange, and those from Florida.
Where are the Azores situated?
In the Atlantic Ocean, about 800 miles west of Portugal. These islands
are very productive in wine and fruits.
Where is Seville?
In Spain; it is an ancient and considerable city, the capital of the
province of Andalusia. The flowers of the Seville orange are highly
odoriferous, and justly esteemed one of the finest perfumes. Its fruit
is larger than the China orange, and rather bitter; the yellow rind or
peel is warm and aromatic. The juice of oranges is a grateful and
wholesome acid.
_Odoriferous_, sweet-scented, fragrant; having a brisk,
agreeable smell which may be perceived at a distance.
Who first introduced the China Orange into Europe?
The Portuguese. It is said that the very tree from which all the
European orange trees of this sort were produced, was still preserved
some years back, at the house of the Count St. Laurent, in Lisbon. In
India, those most esteemed, and which are made presents of as
rarities, are no larger than a billiard ball. The Maltese oranges are
said by some to be the finest in the world.
Who are the Maltese?
The inhabitants of Malta, an island of the Mediterranean, situated
between Africa and Sicily.
Whence are Lemons brought?
The Lemon is a native of Eastern Asia, whence it was brought to
Greece, and afterwards to Italy; from Italy it was transplanted to
Spain, Portugal, and the South of France, whence lemons are imported
in great plenty.
What is the Citron?
The fruit of the Citron Tree, resembling the lemon, but somewhat
larger, and having a finer pulp. The citron was also brought
originally from the East of Asia, but has since been produced in the
warm parts of Europe, like the orange and lemon; Genoa especially is
the greatest nursery for them. Its rind is principally brought to this
country in a candied state, and is applied by confectioners to various
purposes.
Where is Genoa?
A city of Northern Italy, on the Mediterranean, between the rivers
Bisagno and Polcevera.
What is the Lime?
The Lime is by some thought to be a species of lemon, by others not;
it is a smaller fruit, and in the West Indies is greatly preferred to
the lemon. It is cultivated in the South of Europe, the West Indies,
and the warm parts of America. The agreeable scent called Bergamot is
prepared from the rind of a small species of lime.
What are Olives?
The fruit of the Olive Tree, an evergreen, now common in the woods of
France, Spain, and Italy; but in the wild state producing a small
fruit of no value; when cultivated, however, (which it is extensively,
both for the fruit and the quantity of oil which it yields,) it forms
one of the richest productions of Southern Europe. The olive came
originally from Asia. Its use is very ancient; it is frequently spoken
of in the Bible, both as in a wild and cultivated state. The promised
land of the Israelites was "a land of oil, olive, and honey." From the
time that the dove returned to Noah in the Ark with an "olive leaf
plucked off," in all ages and countries, wherever this tree is known,
down to the present day, has an olive-branch been the favorite emblem
of peace.
What nation holds the olive in great repute?
This tree was a great favorite with the ancient Greeks, and scarcely
an ancient custom existed in which the olive was not in some way
associated: at their marriages and festivals, all parts of their
dwellings, especially the doors, were ornamented with them, and the
same custom prevails at the present day, both in public and private
rejoicings. It was also scarcely less a favorite with the Romans,
although it was not held in the same sacred light as amongst the
Greeks. The olive-branch has likewise been universally considered the
emblem of plenty, and as such, is found on the coins of those
countries of which it is _not_ a native. Two centuries after the
foundation of Rome, both Italy and Africa were strangers to this
useful plant; it afterwards became naturalized in those countries, and
at length arrived in Spain, France, &c. Olive trees sometimes attain a
great age.
How are the Olives eaten?
The olives while on the tree are intolerably bitter, without any of
that peculiar taste which gains them admittance at the richest tables;
to fit them for which they are pickled. Ripe olives are eaten in the
Eastern countries, especially amongst the Greeks, as an article of
food, particularly in Lent. The oil, which they yield in great
quantities, is very highly esteemed; being that chiefly used for
salads, &c., in medicine, and in various manufactures.
_Lent_, a time of fasting; the time from Ash-Wednesday to
Easter.
How is the Oil drawn from the Olive?
By presses or mills made for the purpose. The sweetest and best olive
oil comes from the South of France, from Naples, Florence, and Lucca;
quantities are also brought from Spain and the Ionian Islands.
Where is Naples?
In the South of Italy.
Where are Florence and Lucca situated?
In Italy. Florence is a very ancient, large, and celebrated city, the
capital of Italy; Lucca, formerly a republic, belongs now to the
kingdom of Italy.
_Republic_, a state in which the supreme power of government
is lodged in representatives chosen by the people, instead
of being vested in an emperor or king.
You said that the olive is an Evergreen: to what plant or shrub is the
term particularly applied?
To any shrub or tree whose leaves continue fresh and green all the
year round, winter and summer, as the laurel, pine, cedar, holly, &c.,
which do not shed their leaves in autumn as other trees.
Is oil a production confined to the Olive alone?
By no means. Oil is a fatty, inflammable matter, drawn from many
vegetable and animal bodies. The oils in common use are of three
different kinds. The first are mere _oily_ or fatty bodies, extracted
either by pressure, or by decoction: of the first kind are those of
almonds, nuts, olives, &c.; and of the other, those of different
berries, &c., which are procured by boiling the substance in water,
which causes the oil to collect on the top.
_Decoction_, act of boiling--a chemical term.
What are the second and third kinds of Oils?
The second are those drawn from vegetables by common distillation in
the alembic, with the aid of water; these contain the _oily_ and
volatile part of the plant, and are called _essential_ oils. The third
sort are those produced by distillation, but of a different kind in an
open vessel, and without the help of water. They are likewise divided
into _vegetable_ oils, _animal_ oils, and _mineral_ oils; which last
are those drawn from amber, and a few other substances partaking both
of the vegetable and mineral natures, as Petroleum, commonly known as
kerosene or coal oil.
_Alembic_, a chemical vessel used in distilling. It consists
of a vessel placed over a fire, containing the substance to
be distilled; the upper part, which receives and condenses
the steam, is called the head; the beak of this is fitted to
a vessel called a receiver.
_Volatile_, easily escaping, quickly flying off.
Whence is the word Oil derived?
From the Latin _oleum_, formed from _olea, olive-tree_, the fruit of
which abounds in oil.
What immense fish is it that furnishes us with a quantity of _animal_
oil?
The Whale, the largest and noblest inhabitant of the waters. It is
protected from the cold by a case or coating of blubber, that is, a
thick oily fat from which the oil is made; numbers of them are caught
for the sake of that. Ambergris, highly prized in perfumery, is a
product of the sperm whale.
In what seas are they found?
Chiefly in the Northern Seas: extensive whale fisheries are carried on
by the Americans, English, Dutch, &c., and numbers of vessels are sent
out for the purpose of taking the fish: they usually sail in the
latter end of March, and begin fishing about May. The whale fishery
continues generally from that time till the latter end of June or
July. There are also other fishes and animals which afford us oils of
different kinds, which are used for various purposes in medicine and
the arts.
Is the oil called _castor_, which is so much used in medicine, the
product of an animal or a plant?
Castor oil is expressed from a West Indian shrub, called Palma
Christi; and especially from the ripe seeds, which are full of this
oil. It is prepared by collecting these ripe seeds, and freeing them
from the husks; then bruising and beating them into a paste; they are
next boiled in water, when the oil rising to the surface is skimmed
off as it continues to appear. The Castor-oil plant is found growing
abundantly in Sumatra, particularly near the sea-shore.
Where is Sumatra situated?
In the Oriental Archipelago, off the south eastern part of the
continent of Asia.
In what other countries is this plant found?
In some parts of Africa, Syria, and Egypt. It was anciently cultivated
in the two last-mentioned countries in large quantities, the seeds
being used for the oil they yielded, which was burnt in lamps.
[Illustration: BEAVERS BUILDING THEIR HUTS.]
Is not the Palma Christi much affected by soil and situation?
Greatly so. In some places it attains the stature of a tree, and is
not a biennial plant, but endures for many years, as in the warm
plains of Irak, Arabia, and some parts of Africa.
_Biennial_, lasting for the space of two years only.
What are Melons?
A species of the Cucumis, a genus of plants to which the cucumber
belongs. There are great varieties of this fruit cultivated in
different parts of the world; that sort called the Cantaleup (so named
from being cultivated at a place of that name in the neighborhood of
Rome, whither it was brought from Armenia,) is a species of
musk-melon; the mature fruit is juicy, and delicately flavored.
Where is Armenia situated?
Armenia is a large country situated in Asiatic Turkey, to the west of
the Caspian Sea.
What species of Melon is that which almost makes up for a scarcity of
good water in hot countries?
The water-melon, which affords a cool, refreshing juice, and quenches
the thirst produced by the excessive heats. It requires a dry, sandy
soil, and a warm climate; the pulp of the fruit is remarkably rich and
delicious.
What are Tamarinds?
The fruit of the Tamarind Tree, a native of both the Indies, Asia,
Africa, &c. It is of a roundish form, and composed of two pods
inclosed one within the other, between which is a soft pulpy
substance, of a tart but agreeable taste; the inner pod contains the
seeds or stones.
_Tart_, sharp, acid.
For what are they used?
We use them only as medicine; but the Africans, and many of the
Oriental nations, with whom they are common, make them into a kind of
preserve with sugar, which they eat as a delicacy, and which cools
them in the violent heats of their climate.
From what nation was the knowledge of their use in medicine obtained?
From the Arabians.
What does the word Oriental signify?
Belonging to the East; therefore those countries of the globe situated
in the East are called Oriental, those in the West, Occidental, from
_Oriens_, signifying East, and _Occidens_, West.
What are Dates?
The fruit of the Palm, a beautiful and graceful tree, peculiar to the
warmer regions of the globe; the growth of the palm is extremely
singular, for although some species attain to the height of the
largest forest trees, their structure differs materially from that of
a tree, properly so called. The leaves of the young plant arise
directly from the surface of the ground, and there is no appearance of
any stem for several years; this stem once formed, never increases in
size, the growth of the plant being always upward, so that the stem
itself is formed by the prior growth of the green portions of the
palm.
_Structure_, the manner of formation.
How often does this tree cast its circle of leaves?
Every year; so that the number of years a palm has existed is known by
the scars which are left by their falling off. The palm is an
evergreen.
What are the uses of this Tree?
The Palm is of the utmost importance to the inhabitants of the
tropical regions; the fruit and sap providing them with food, the
fibrous parts with clothing, and the leaves forming the greater part
of their slightly-constructed huts; the leaves of some species are
formed into fans, hats, and parasols; others are written on, in the
same manner that we write on paper; artificial flowers are made of
the pith of some; the light and supple rattan walking-cane is the
slender shoot of another kind; and solid and useful utensils are made
of the shell of the cocoa-nut. The fibres of the Date Palm are formed
into ropes and twine; a liquor is drawn from the trunk, called palm
wine; the trunks of the old trees furnish a hard and durable wood; and
even the nuts or stones of the fruit are useful for feeding cattle; a
wholesome flour is also made of the fruit, when dried and reduced to
powder.
_Constructed_, put together.
Whence is its name derived?
From the Latin word _palma_, a hand, given to these productions of the
vegetable world, from the supposed resemblance of their broad leaves
to the human hand. The Date, the fruit of the Date Palm, derives its
name from the Greek _dactylus_, a finger, from its mode of growing in
clusters spreading out like the fingers of the hand. The Palm
sometimes forms impenetrable forests; but more frequently is found in
small groups of two or three, or even singly, beside springs and
fountains of water, affording a kindly shade to the thirsty traveller.
_Impenetrable_, not easily penetrated or got through.
From what countries are Dates brought?
From Egypt, Syria, Persia, Africa, and the Indies. Among the Egyptians
and Africans, they make a principal article of food. Dates, when ripe,
are of a bright coral red, of an oblong form, and possess a sharp
biting taste: they are usually gathered in autumn, before being
perfectly ripe.
CHAPTER IX.
HATS, STOCKINGS, SHOES, GLOVES, LEATHER, FURS, AND INK.
Of what are Hats made?
Of felt and wool. Dress hats for men's wear, were formerly made of
beaver-fur, but the increasing scarcity of this article led to the
introduction of silk plush as a substitute, and the result is that
beaver is entirely superseded, and plush is used altogether. They
possess many advantages over the beaver hat, as they are light,
glossy, and durable. Hats are also made of straw, plaited and sewed
together.
When did Hats come into general use?
The first mention made of hats is about the time of the Saxons, but
they were not worn except by the rich. Hats for men were invented at
Paris, by a Swiss, in 1404. About the year 1510, they were first
manufactured in London, by Spaniards. Before that time both men and
women in England commonly wore close, knitted, woollen caps. They
appear to have become more common in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. It
is related, that when Charles the Second made his public entry into
Rouen, in 1449, he wore a hat lined with red velvet, surmounted with a
plume or tuft of feathers; from which entry, or at least during his
reign, the use of hats and caps is to be dated; and from that time
they took the place of chaperons and hoods, that had been worn before
in France.
Where is Rouen?
In the province of Lower Seine, in France; it was formerly the capital
of Normandy.
Describe the Castor, or Beaver, and its habits.
The Beaver has a broad, flat tail, covered with scales, serving as a
rudder to direct its motion in the water; the toes of its hind feet
are furnished with membranes, after the manner of water-fowl; the fore
feet supply the place of hands, like those of the squirrel. The
Beaver has two kinds of hair, of a light brown color, one long and
coarse, the other short and silky. The teeth resemble those of a rat
or squirrel, but are longer, and admirably adapted for cutting timber
or stripping off the bark from trees.
_Membranes_, thin, flexible, expanded skins, connecting the
toes of water-fowl and amphibious animals, and thus enabling
them to swim with greater ease.
Where do Beavers usually fix their habitations?
Their houses are always situated in the water; they are composed of
clay, which they make into a kind of mortar with their paws: these
huts are of an oval figure, divided into three apartments raised one
above the other, and erected on piles driven into the mud. Each beaver
has his peculiar cell assigned him, the floor of which he strews with
leaves or small branches of the pine tree. The whole building is
generally capable of containing eight or ten inhabitants.
On what does the Beaver feed?
Its food consists of fruit and plants; and in winter, of the wood of
the ash and other trees. The hunters and trappers in America formerly
killed vast numbers for their skins, which were in great demand, as
they were used in making hats, but as the only use they are now put to
is for trimming, and for men's gloves and collars, the demand has
fallen off.
Of what are stockings made?
Of cotton, silk, or wool, woven or knitted. Anciently, the only
stockings in use were made of cloth, or stuff sewed together; but
since the invention of knitting and weaving stockings of silk, &c.,
the use of cloth has been discontinued.
From what country is it supposed that the invention of silk knitted
stockings originally came?
From Spain, in 1589. The art of weaving stockings in a frame was
invented by William Lee, M.A., of St. John's College, Cambridge,
England.
Explain the signification of M.A.
Master of Arts, a degree of honor conferred by the Universities.
What are Shoes?
A covering for the foot, now usually made of leather. In different
ages and countries, shoes have been made of various materials, as raw
skins, rushes, broom, paper, silk, wool, iron, silver, and gold.
What nation wore Shoes made of the bark of the papyrus?
The Egyptians. The Turks always take off their shoes, and leave them
at the door, when they enter Mosques or dwelling-houses. The same
custom also prevails in other Eastern nations.
What is a Mosque?
A Mahomedan church or temple.
What is meant by Mahomedan?
Belonging to the religion of Mahomed, the warrior and prophet of
Arabia and Turkey, who was its founder. He was born at Mecca, a city
of Arabia, in 571; and died in 631, at Medina, a city situated between
Arabia Felix and Arabia Deserta. His creed maintains that there is but
one God, and that Mahomed is his Prophet; it enjoins the observance of
prayers, washings, almsgiving, fasting, sobriety, pilgrimage to Mecca,
&c.
What do the appellations of Felix and Deserta signify?
Arabia, a country of Asia, lying on the borders of the Red Sea, is
divided into Petræa, Deserta, and Felix; Petræa, signifying the Stony;
Deserta, the Desert; and Felix, the fortunate or fruitful.
What is Leather?
The skins of various animals, as oxen, cows, calves, &c., dressed and
prepared for use.
How is the Leather prepared?
By tanning; that is, steeping the skins in an infusion of tan, by
which they are rendered firm, durable, and, in a great degree,
impervious to water.
_Infusion_, a liquor made by steeping anything in water, or
other liquids, without boiling.
What is Tan?
The bark of the oak-tree, &c., ground by a mill into a coarse powder.
What is Lime?[5]
A white, soft, friable, earthy substance, prepared from marble, chalk,
and other lime-stones, or from shells, by burning in a kiln.
[Footnote 5: For a further account of it, see Chapters XIII. & XVI.]
_Friable_, easily powdered.
For what is it used?
Its greatest use is in the composition of mortar for building; it is
also much used by tanners, skinners, &c., in the preparation of
leather; by soap-boilers in the manufacture of soap; and by
sugar-bakers for refining sugar.
What is a Kiln?
A fabric of brick or stone, formed for admitting heat in order to dry
or burn materials placed in it.
Of what are Gloves made?
Of leather, silk, thread, cotton, worsted, &c.
What skins are generally used for Gloves?
Those of the chamois, kid, lamb, dog, doe, and many other animals.
What are Furs, and how are they prepared?
Furs are the skins of wild animals, dressed with the hair on, and used
as apparel, either for warmth, ornament, or distinction of rank or
dignity.
Name a few of the principal furs in use.
The fur of the ermine, an animal inhabiting the cold regions of Europe
and America, is highly valued, and much used for ornamental purposes.
In summer, the upper part of the body is of a yellowish-brown color;
the under parts white, slightly tinged with yellow. It is then called
a _stoat_. In winter, the fur is closer and finer, and is of a snowy
white color; the tip of the tail is black throughout the year. In
Europe the fur is much used for ornamenting the state robes of
sovereigns and nobles. The sable is another animal much prized for its
rich fur; it is a native of Northern Europe and America. The skins of
the marten, found in North America, as well as in Northern Asia and
the mountains of Kamtschatka; and also of the bear, fox, raccoon,
badger, lynx, musk-rat, rabbit, hare, and squirrel, which are all
procured in North America, are valuable. One of the most valuable
descriptions of fur is that of the seal.
How is it procured?
By hunting the animals, which is the employment both of natives and
settlers from other countries; the hunters sell the skins for money,
to a company established for the purpose of trading in furs, or more
frequently exchange them for clothes, arms, and other articles. The
Alaska Commercial Company of San Francisco is granted by the United
States Government the exclusive privilege of catching the fur seal.
What is Alum?
A kind of mineral, of a strong, sharp taste. It dissolves both in cold
and boiling water, but best in the latter. It is of some use in
medicine; a principal ingredient in dyeing and coloring, neither of
which can be well performed without it, as it sets and brightens the
colors, and prevents them from washing out. It is also extremely
useful in many arts and manufactures.
Are there not different sorts of this material?
The principal kinds are native alums: _viz._ those prepared and
perfected underground by the spontaneous operations of nature; as the
roch, commonly called rock alum, from Rocha, in Syria, whence it is
brought.
_Spontaneous_, unassisted by art.
_Orientals_, inhabitants of the Eastern parts of the world.
What is Ink?
A liquor used in writing on paper or parchment, made of copperas,
galls; and gum arabic[6] mixed together. There are likewise several
plants that may serve for the making of ink, as oak-bark, red roses,
log-wood, &c. It is also made from an infusion of oak galls and iron
filings: there are also many other ways, as well as materials,
employed in the making of this useful article. Ink is the name applied
to all liquids used in writing, of whatever color they may be, as red,
blue, &c., though black is the most used for common purposes. The ink
of the ancients seems to have been of a thick, oily nature, unlike the
modern ink; it consisted of nothing more than a species of soot, or
ivory black, mixed with one fourth of gum.
[Footnote 6: See Chapter XI.]
What is Copperas?
A kind of vitriol. Copperas is the name given to green vitriol, which
is a preparation from iron. The blue vitriol is a sulphate of copper,
and the white vitriol a sulphate of zinc.
For what is Vitriol used?
In the making of glass, to color it; in many arts and manufactures;
and in medicine.
What are Galls?
Excrescences formed on a kind of oak tree in certain warm climates;
perforations are made by an insect into the bark of the tree, whence
issues a liquid which hardens by exposure. They are used in dyeing,
making ink, and other compositions. There are two sorts of oak galls
in our shops, brought from the Levant, and the southern parts of
Europe.
What does the word Levant signify?
A country to the eastward. It is applied to the countries of Turkey,
Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, &c., which are washed by the eastern
part of the Mediterranean.
Is the Ink used in Printing the same as writing Ink?
No; it is more of the nature of paint, being thicker and more
glutinous: it chiefly consists of a mixture of oil and lamp-black, or
some other ingredient, according to the color required; and is
remarkable for the ease with which it adheres to paper that is
moistened.
_Glutinous_, gummy, resembling glue.
What is Indian, or Chinese Ink?
An admirable composition, not liquid like our ink, but solid, and made
into cakes somewhat like the mineral colors we use in painting. It is
made into all sorts of figures, usually long, and about an inch thick;
sometimes gilt with the figures of birds, flowers, &c. To use this
ink, it must be rubbed with water, on stone or earthenware, till it
produces a beautiful, liquid, shining black. It is used in drawing,
&c., and is brought from China. It is composed of lamp-black and size,
or animal glue, or gum, to which perfumes and other substances are
sometimes added.
CHAPTER X.
ASBESTUS, SALT, COAL, IRON, COPPER, BRASS, ZINC, AND LAPIS
CALAMINARIS.
What is the name of the remarkable stone of which a cloth has been
made, that resists the action of fire?
The Asbestus, a mineral substance of a whitish or silver color. There
are several species of this mineral, which are distinguished by
different names, according to the appearance of each, as fibrous
asbestus, hard asbestus, and woody asbestus; it is the fibrous sort
which is most noted for its uses in the arts. It is usually found
inclosed within very hard stones; sometimes growing on their outside,
and sometimes detached from them.
_Fibrous_, full of fibres or threads.
What are its qualities?
It is insipid; will not dissolve in water; and exposed to the fire, it
neither consumes nor calcines. The industry of mankind has found a
method of working upon this untoward mineral and employing it in
making cloth and paper; the process is, however, difficult.
_Insipid_, without taste.
Was not this curious mineral better known to the ancients than it is
at present?
The linen made from it was highly esteemed by them; it was not only
better known, but more common, than among us, being equally valuable
with the richest pearls; but the superiority of all other cloths to
this in every respect, except the resistance to fire, has caused
incombustible cloth to be regarded in modern times merely as a
curiosity, but it is still employed in chemical preparations.
_Incombustible_, remaining undestroyed in fire.
To what use did they put it?
In royal funerals, it formed the shroud to wrap the body in that its
ashes might be prevented from mingling with the wood, &c., that
composed the pile. Some of the ancients made themselves clothes of it,
particularly the Brahmins among the Hindoos; it formed wicks for their
perpetual lamps; thread, ropes, nets, and paper were also made of it.
Pliny, the Roman naturalist, says he has seen napkins of asbestus
taken soiled from the table after a feast, which were thrown into the
fire, and by that means better scoured than if they had been washed
with water.
_Naturalist_, a person who studies nature, especially in
what relates to minerals, vegetables, and animals.
_Brahmins_, Hindoo priests.
Where is the Asbestus found?
This mineral is found in the greatest quantity in the silver mines of
Saxony; at Bleyburg, in Carinthia; in Sweden, Corsica, and sometimes
in France, England, and the United States; also in Tartary and
Siberia.
What method is used in preparing the Asbestus?
The stone is laid in warm water to soak, then opened and divided by
the hands, that the earthy matter may be washed out. This washing is
several times repeated, and the flax-like filaments collected and
dried; these are easily spun with the addition of flax. The cloth when
woven is best preserved by oil from breaking or wasting; on exposure
to the fire, the flax and the oil burn out, and the cloth remains of a
pure white. The shorter threads, which separate on washing the stone,
may be made into paper in the usual manner.
What is Salt?
A saline crystallization of a sharp, pungent taste, and cleansing
quality, used to season flesh, fish, butter, &c., and other things
that are to be kept. It is distinguished, with reference to the
general sources from which it is most plentifully derived, into three
different sorts, namely, fossil, or rock salt; sea, or marine salt;
and spring salt, or that drawn from briny springs and wells.
_Marine_, belonging to the sea.
_Saline_, consisting of salt.
_Briny_, consisting of brine; which means water tasting of
salt; it is used to signify the waters of the sea, or any
salt water.
What is Fossil or Rock Salt?
That which is found in large beds in the bowels of the earth, and
which has not undergone any artificial preparation; it is sometimes
colorless, but more frequently red, yellow, or blue, and mixed with
earthy impurities; this salt was entirely unknown to the ancients, who
by rock salt meant that which adheres to the rocks above high-water
mark, being lodged there by the spray of the sea, which is evaporated
by the heat of the sun; this is the purest salt, and is to be found on
the rocks of Sicily, and several islands of the West Indies.
_Artificial_, produced by art, and the labor of man.
_Evaporated_, converted into vapor and dissipated.
What is Marine Salt?
That which is made from sea-water, concentrated by repeated
evaporations, and at length crystallized.
What is Spring Salt?
That salt which is not made from sea-water, but from the water of salt
wells or springs; large quantities of this salt are made in the United
States, in some parts of which saline springs are numerous.
In what manner is it obtained?
The means employed for extracting the salt from the water vary
according to circumstances. In hot countries, the water is merely
exposed to the action of the sun, until the water is evaporated; the
salt procured in this manner is considered the best.
What method is usually employed in countries where the sun's heat is
not sufficiently powerful?
In climates where the rays of the sun do not afford sufficient heat,
the water, which has been partly evaporated in large shallow
reservoirs formed in the earth, called salt-pans, is poured into
enormous coppers and boiled for four or five hours: when the contents
of the copper are wasted to half the quantity, the liquid begins to be
crystallized; the vessel is again filled up, and the brine again
boiled and purified: this is repeated three or four times. After the
last purifying the fire is kept very low for twelve or fourteen hours,
and when the moisture is nearly evaporated the salt is removed, and,
after the remaining brine has drained off, is placed in the
store-houses.
In what countries is Salt generally found?
This substance, so necessary to the comfort of mankind, is widely
distributed over the face of the earth, and nothing, except, perhaps,
the air we breathe, is more easily placed within our reach. The ocean
is an exhaustless store-house of this valuable article. Those nations
of the earth which are placed at a distance from the sea, find
themselves provided with magazines of salt, either in solid masses, or
dissolved in the waters of inland lakes, or issuing from the solid
rocks in springs of brine. At Salina, Syracuse, and other places in
Onondaga Co., New York, salt springs are remarkably abundant, and
yield annually several millions of bushels; immense quantities are
also obtained from the salt-wells on the Great and Little Kanawha, and
other places in Western Virginia; it is also extensively manufactured
in the western part of Pennsylvania, and throughout the Western
States.
Name the countries most noted for mines of Salt.
Poland, Upper Hungary, and the mountains of Catalonia, have extensive
salt mines; those in the village of Wieliczca, in Poland, about five
leagues from Cracow, are of a surprising depth and size. In the
interior of Hindostan, there is a remarkable salt lake; and in several
parts of the globe there are spots of ground impregnated entirely with
this substance: an island of the East Indies contains a singular kind
of fossil, or native dry salt; the soil there is in general very
fruitful, but in certain parts of the island, there are spots of
ground entirely barren, without the appearance of anything vegetable
upon them; these spots taste very much of salt, and abound with it in
such quantities, as to supply not only the whole island, but the
greater part of the adjacent continent. In Utah Territory, especially
in the neighborhood of the Mormon city, at the Great Salt Lake, are
found extensive plains thus impregnated with salt, which is procured
in great abundance.
_Fossil_, the remains of minerals or shells dug from the
earth.
_Impregnated_, filled, saturated.
_Catalonia_, a considerable province of Spain, situated to
the north-east.
_Adjacent_, adjoining, lying near, or contiguous.
To what use did the ancient inhabitants of Africa and Arabia put this
substance?
The large slabs of rock salt, with which their country abounds, were
employed by them instead of stones, in building their dwellings, the
pieces being easily cemented together by sprinkling the joints with
water, which, melting the parts of the two surfaces that opposed each
other, formed the whole, when dry, into one solid block.
Does Rock Salt undergo any preparation before it is used?
Yes; when taken from the earth it is dissolved in cold water, and
afterwards drawn off into salt-pans, and refined in the same manner as
the sea salt.
What is Coal?
A hard, black, sulphurous and inflammable substance, dug out of the
earth, serving in many countries as fuel. It is common in most of the
countries of Europe and America. In some parts of the United States,
it is found in beds having an area of several thousand square miles.
From what is Coal supposed to have originated?
Its origin is supposed to be derived from gigantic trees which
flourished in the swamps and forests of the primeval earth. These
having been torn away from their native bed, by storms and
inundations, were transported into some adjacent lake, river, or sea.
Here they floated on the waters until, saturated with them, they sank
to the bottom, and being buried in the lower soil of adjacent lands,
became transformed into a new state among the members of the mineral
kingdom. A long interment followed, during which a course of chemical
changes, and new combinations of their vegetable elements, converted
them to the mineral condition of coal.
_Primeval_, original, existing before the flood.
_Gigantic_, extremely large, greater than the usual size.
_Interment_, burial under the ground.
_Elements_, the several parts or principles of which bodies
are composed.
What is a Coal Mine?
A subterraneous excavation, from which coal is obtained.
Do the terms Coal and Charcoal signify the same substance?
No; Charcoal is an artificial fuel, made in imitation of coal, by
burning wood covered with earth so as partially to exclude the air. It
is used for various purposes, as the making of gunpowder,[7] polishing
brass and copper, &c., and when a clear and bright fire is required,
as it burns with little or no smoke; it is dangerous, however, for one
to remain many hours in a close room with a charcoal fire, as the
fumes it throws out are hurtful, and would destroy life. Charcoal, in
fact, is the coaly residuum of any vegetables burnt in close vessels;
but the common charcoal is that prepared from wood, and is generally
black, very brittle, light, and destitute of taste or smell. It is a
powerful antiseptic, unalterable and indestructible.
[Footnote 7: See Chapter XII.]
_Residuum_, the remaining part, that which is left.
_Antiseptic_, that which prevents putrefaction.
What is Iron?
One of the most useful and abundant metals; being found in all mineral
earths, and stones; in plants, and animal fluids; and is the chief
cause of the varieties of color in all. Iron is found in great masses,
in various states, in the bowels of the earth; it is usually, however,
compounded with stone, from which it is separated by the action of
fire. In some parts of the world, whole mountains are formed of iron;
among these may be mentioned the Pilot Knob and the Iron Mountain, in
Missouri, being unsurpassed by anything of the kind found elsewhere.
What are its characteristics?
It is hard, fusible, not very malleable, but extremely ductile, and
very tenacious; it is of a greyish color, and nearly eight times
heavier than water. Without iron, society could make no progress in
the cultivation of the ground, in mechanical arts or trades, in
architecture or navigation; it is therefore of the greatest use to
man. Iron tools have been used in all European countries as long as
their histories have existed; this metal appears likewise to have been
known and used by the inhabitants of the world in the earliest ages,
being frequently mentioned in the Holy Scriptures. In the fourth
chapter of Genesis, Tubalcain is spoken of as "a hammerer and
artificer in every work of brass and iron," and thus their existence
was evidently known at that early period of the world.
_Artificer_, one who works or makes.
_Fusible_, capable of being melted by fire.
[Illustration: THE SALT MINES OF WIELICZCA.]
What do you mean by Metals?
Useful substances dug from the bowels of the earth, being sometimes
found pure, but mostly combined with other matter. They are
distinguished by their weight, tenacity, hardness, opacity, color, and
peculiar lustre, known as the metallic lustre; they are fusible by
heat, and good conductors of heat and electricity; many of them are
malleable, and some extremely ductile. Those which were first known
are gold, silver, iron, copper, mercury, lead, and tin.
_Tenacity_, the firmness with which one part adheres to
another.
_Opacity_, want of transparency or clearness.
What are Metals called in their natural state?
Ores; so named because the metal contained in them is either mixed
with other metals, or with mineral earths, from which they are
separated and purified by various means: such as washing, roasting,
&c., but the method is always regulated by the nature of the ore.
What is Copper?
A hard, heavy, ductile metal, found native, and in many ores; of these
the most important is _copper pyrites_, which is a sulphuret of
copper. Next to gold, silver, and platinum, copper is the most
malleable and ductile of metals; it may be drawn into wires as fine as
hair, or beaten into leaves as thin as those of silver. The rust of
copper is very poisonous. Copper, mixed with a certain quantity of
tin, forms bell-metal. With a smaller proportion, it forms bronze, a
substance used in sculpture for casting figures and statues. It is an
abundant metal, and is found in various parts of the world. Native
oxides of copper are found in Cornwall, Siberia, and in North and
South America.
_Oxide_, a substance combined with Oxygen,[8] in a
proportion not sufficient to produce acidity.
_Sulphuret_, a combination of sulphur with a base.
[Footnote 8: See Chapter XIII., article Oxygen.]
What are the uses of Copper?
They are too various to be enumerated. In sheets it is much used to
sheathe the bottoms of ships, for boilers, and other utensils. Copper
coin was the only money used by the Romans till the 485th year of
their city, when silver began to be coined. In Sweden, houses are
covered with this metal.
What is a Mine?
A cavity under ground, formed for the purpose of obtaining metals,
&c.; mines are often very deep and extensive. The descent into them is
by a pit, called a shaft; the clues by which mines are discovered,
are, mineral springs, the discoloration of vegetables, the appearance
of pieces of ore, &c.
_Clues_, signs or means by which things hidden are brought
to light.
What is Brass?
A factitious metal, consisting of copper and zinc. Brass is lighter
and harder than pure copper, and less subject to rust; owing to these
properties, together with its beautiful color, it is extremely useful
in the manufacture of many utensils.
_Factitious_, made by art, not found in a natural state.
What is Zinc?
A metal of a brilliant bluish white color. Its name was unknown to the
ancient Greeks and Arabians. It is mixed with other substances in the
ore, from which it is obtained by smelting in the furnace. It has
never yet been found native or pure.
For what is Zinc used?
From its readiness to dissolve in all acids, and unite with other
metals, it is used in alloy with them in the composition of brass, &c.
Thin sheets of zinc are also used to cover roofs of houses, and in the
manufacture of various household utensils.
What is Lapis Calaminaris?
Lapis Calaminaris, or calamine stone, is a native carbonate of zinc,
of some use in medicine, but chiefly in founding. It is, sometimes
brownish, as that found in Germany and England, or red, as that of
France. It is dug out of mines, usually in small pieces; generally out
of those of lead. Calamine is mostly found in barren, rocky soils.
_Founding_, the art of casting metals.
CHAPTER XI.
YAMS, MANGOES, BREAD-FRUIT, SHEA OR BUTTER TREE, COW TREE, WATER
TREE, LICORICE, MANNA, OPIUM, TOBACCO, AND GUM.
What are Yams?
The roots of a climbing plant growing in tropical climates. The root
of the yam is wholesome and well-flavored; nearly as large as a man's
leg, and of an irregular form. Yams are much used for food in those
countries where they grow; the natives either roast or boil them, and
the white people grind them into flour, of which they make bread and
puddings. The yam is of a dirty brown color outside, but white and
mealy within.
What are Mangoes?
The fruit of the Mango Tree, a native of India and the south-western
parts of Asia; it also grows abundantly in the West Indies and Brazil.
It was introduced into Jamaica in 1782; where it attains the height of
thirty or forty feet, with thick and wide-extended branches. The
varieties of the mango are very numerous,--upwards of eighty are
cultivated; and the quality of these varies according to the countries
and situations in which they grow. The mangoes of Asia are said to be
much better than those of America.
Describe the appearance of the Mango Tree.
The flowers of this tree are small and whitish, formed in pyramidal
clusters. The fruit has some resemblance to a short thick cucumber,
about the size of a goose's egg; its taste is delicious and cooling;
it has a stone in the centre, like that of a peach. At first this
fruit is of a fine green color, and some varieties continue so, while
others change to a fine golden or orange color. The mango tree is an
evergreen, bearing fruit once or twice a year, from six or seven years
old to a hundred.
_Pyramidal_, resembling a pyramid.
How is this fruit eaten?
When ripe, it is eaten by the natives either in its natural state, or
bruised in wine. It is brought to us either candied or pickled, as the
ripe fruit is very perishable; in the latter case, they are opened
with a knife, and the middle filled up with fresh ginger, garlic,
mustard, salt, and oil or vinegar. The fruit of the largest variety
weighs two pounds or upwards. The several parts of this tree are all
applied to some use by the Hindoos: the wood is consecrated to the
service of the dead; from the flour of the dried kernels different
kinds of food are prepared; the leaves, flowers, and bark, are
medicinal.
_Medicinal_, fit for medicine, possessing medical properties.
_Consecrated_, separated from a common to a sacred use.
Is there not a tree which bears a fruit that may be used for bread?
Yes; the Bread-fruit Tree, originally found in the southeastern parts
of Asia and the islands of the Pacific Ocean, though introduced into
the tropical parts of America. It is one of the most interesting, as
well as singular productions of the vegetable kingdom, being no less
beautiful than it is useful. This tree is large and shady; its leaves
are broad and indented, like those of the fig tree--from twelve to
eighteen inches long, rather fleshy, and of a dark green. The fruit,
when full-grown, is from six to nine inches round, and of an oval
form--when ripe, of a rich, yellow tinge; it generally hangs in
clusters of two or three, on a small thick stalk; the pulp is white,
partly farinaceous, and partly fibrous, but when ripe, becomes yellow
and juicy.
_Indented_, toothed like the edge of a saw.
_Farinaceous_, mealy, consisting of meal or flour; from
_farina_, flour.
How is the Bread-Fruit eaten?
It is roasted until the outside is of a brown color and crisp; the
pulp has then the consistency of bread, which the taste greatly
resembles; and thus it forms a nourishing food: it is also prepared in
many different ways, besides that just mentioned. The tree produces
three, sometimes four crops in a year, and continues bearing for fifty
years, so that two or three trees are enough for a man's yearly
supply. Its timber, which at first is of a rich yellow, but afterwards
assumes the color of mahogany, is used in the building of houses and
canoes; the flowers, when dried, serve as tinder; the sap or juice
serves for glue; the inner bark is made, by the natives of some of the
islands of the Pacific Ocean, into a kind of cloth; and the leaves are
useful for many purposes. One species of the bread-fruit, called the
Jaca tree, grows chiefly on the mainland of Asia.
_Mainland_, the continent.
Describe the Jaca Tree.
This kind grows to the same, if not a larger size than the bread-fruit
of the islands, but is neither so palatable nor so nutritious; the
fruit often weighs thirty pounds, and contains two or three hundred
seeds, each four times as large as an almond. December is the time
when the fruit ripens; it is then eaten, but not much relished; the
seeds are also eaten when roasted. There are also other trees in
different parts of the world, mostly of the palm species, which yield
bread of a similar kind.
Is there not a tree which produces a substance resembling the Butter
which we make from the milk of the cow?
The Shea, or Butter Tree, a native of Africa: it is similar in
appearance to the American oak, and the fruit, (from the kernel of
which the butter is prepared,) is somewhat like an olive in form. The
kernel is inclosed in a sweet pulp, under a thin, green rind.
How is the Butter extracted?
The kernel, being taken out and dried in the sun, is boiled in water;
by which process a white, firm, and rich-flavored butter is produced,
which will keep for a whole year without salt. The growth and
preparation of this commodity is one of the first objects of African
industry, and forms a principal article of their trade with one
another.
You have given me an account of a useful Butter prepared from a plant;
is there not also a tree which can supply the want of a cow?
In South America there is a tree, the juice of which is a nourishing
milk; it is called the Cow Tree. This tree is very fine; the leaves
are broad, and some of them ten inches long; the fruit is rather
fleshy, and contains one or two nuts or kernels. The milk is very
abundant, and is procured by incisions made in the trunk of the tree;
it is tolerably thick, and of a glutinous quality, a pleasant taste,
and agreeable smell. The negroes and people at work on the farms drink
it, dipping into it their bread made of maize.
_Glutinous_, having the quality of glue,--an adhesive, gummy
substance, prepared from the skins of animals: it is used in
joining wood, &c., and for many other purposes.
What time of the day is the best for drawing the juice?
Sunrise; the blacks and natives then hasten from all quarters with
large bowls to receive the milk; some drink it on the spot, others
carry it home to their families.
What island possesses a remarkable substitute for the want of springs
of Water?
Ferro, one of the Canary Isles, situated in the Atlantic Ocean. In
this island there is no water, except on a part of the beach which is
nearly inaccessible; to supply the place of a fountain, Nature has
bestowed on the island a particular kind of tree, unknown in other
parts of the world. It is of a moderate size, with straight, long,
evergreen leaves; on its top a small cloud continually rests, which so
drenches the leaves with moisture, that it perpetually distils upon
the ground a stream of clear water. To these trees, as to perennial
springs, the inhabitants of Ferro repair, and are supplied with
abundance of water for themselves and cattle.
_Perennial_, lasting through the year, perpetual.
What is Licorice?
A plant, the juice of which is squeezed from the roots, and then
boiled with sugar, and used as a remedy for coughs, &c. Great
quantities are exported from Spain, Italy, &c. The dried root is of
great use in medicine, and makes an excellent drink for colds and
other affections of the lungs by boiling it with linseed.
What are the Lungs?
The organs of respiration in man and many other animals. There are two
of these organs, one on each side of the chest.
_Respiration_, breathing; the act of inhaling air into the lungs,
and again expelling it, by which animal life is supported.
What is Manna?
A sweet, white juice, oozing from the branches and leaves of a kind of
ash tree, growing chiefly in the southern parts of Italy, during the
heats of summer. When dry, it is very light, easily crumbled, and of a
whitish, or pale yellow color, not unlike hardened honey.
Is Manna peculiar to the Ash Tree of Southern Italy?
No. Manna is nothing more than the nutritious juices of the tree,
which exude during the summer heats; and what confirms this is, that
the very hot summers are always those which are most productive of
manna. Several different species of trees produce a kind of manna; the
best and most used is, however, that of Calabria, in Italy.
What are its uses?
It was much esteemed formerly in medicine, but it has now gone nearly
into disuse. The peasants of Mount Libanus eat it as others do honey.
The Bedouin Arabs consume great quantities, considering it the
greatest dainty their country affords. In Mexico, they are said to
have a manna which they eat as we do cheese. At Briançon, in France,
they collect it from all sorts of trees that grow there, and the
inhabitants observe, that such summers as produce the greatest
quantities of manna are very fatal to the trees, many of them
perishing in the winter.
Is there not another tree which produces Manna?
Yes: the Tamarisk, a tree peculiar to Palestine and parts of Arabia.
This remarkable substance is produced by several trees, and in various
countries of the East. On Mount Sinai there is a different species of
Tamarisk that yields it. It is found on the branches of the tree, and
falls on the ground during the heat of the day.
Where is Mount Libanus?
Mount Libanus, or Lebanon, is situated in Asiatic Turkey; it was
anciently famous for its large and beautiful cedar trees. The "Cedars
of Lebanon" are frequently mentioned in Holy Writ. There are now
scarcely any remaining of superior size and antiquity, but they vary
from the largest size down to mere saplings; and their numbers seem to
increase rather than diminish, there being many young trees springing
up.
How is Manna gathered?
From August to September, the Italians collect it in the following
manner, _viz._: by making an incision at the foot of the tree, each day
over that of the preceding, about four inches from one another: these
cuts, or incisions, are nearly two inches long, and half an inch deep.
When the cut is made, the manna directly begins to flow, at first like
clear water, but congealing as it flows, it soon becomes firm: this
they collect in baskets. Manna has been found to consist of two
distinct substances one nearly resembling sugar, the other similar to
a gum or mucilage.
What nation was fed with a kind of Manna?
The Children of Israel, when wandering in the desert wilderness, where
no food was to be procured, were fed by a miraculous supply of manna,
showered down from Heaven every morning on the ground in such
quantities as to afford sufficient food for the whole host.
What is Opium?
A narcotic, gummy, resinous juice, drawn from the head of the white
poppy, and afterwards thickened; it is brought over in dark, reddish
brown lumps, which, when powdered, become yellow.
_Narcotic_, producing sleep and drowsiness.
In what countries is it cultivated?
In many parts of Asia, India, and even the southern parts of Europe,
whence it is exported into other countries. The Turks, and other
Eastern nations, chew it. With us it is chiefly used in medicine. The
juice is obtained from incisions made in the seed-vessels of the
plant; it is collected in earthen pots, and allowed to become
sufficiently hard to be formed into roundish masses of about four
pounds weight. In Europe the poppy is cultivated mostly for the seeds.
Morphia and laudanum are medicinal preparations of opium.
What is Tobacco?
An herbaceous plant which flourishes in many temperate climates,
particularly in North America; it is supposed to have received its
name from Tabaco, a province of Mexico; it is cultivated in the West
Indies, the Levant, on the coast of Greece, in the Archipelago, Malta,
Italy, France, Ceylon, &c. It was not known in Europe till the
discovery of America by the Spaniards; and was carried to England
about the time of Queen Elizabeth, either by Sir Francis Drake or Sir
Walter Raleigh. Tobacco is either taken as snuff, smoked in pipes or
in the form of cigars, or chewed in the mouth like opium. There are
many different species of this plant, most of them natives of America,
some of the Cape of Good Hope and China. Tobacco contains a powerful
poison called nicotine.
_Herbaceous_, like an herb or plant, not a shrub or tree.
What part of the plant is used?
The leaves, which are stripped from the plant, and after being
moistened with water, are twisted up into rolls; these are cut up by
the tobacconist, and variously prepared for sale, or reduced into a
scented powder called snuff.
Who was Sir Francis Drake?
Sir Francis Drake was a distinguished naval officer, who flourished in
the reign of Elizabeth. He made his name immortal by a voyage into the
South Seas, through the Straits of Magellan; which, at that time, no
Englishman had ever attempted. He died on board his own ship in the
West Indies, 1595.
Who was Sir Walter Raleigh?
Sir Walter Raleigh was also an illustrious English navigator and
historian, born in 1552. He performed great services for Queen
Elizabeth, particularly in the discovery of Virginia, and in the
defeat of the Spanish Armada; he lived in honor and prosperity during
her reign, but on the accession of James the First, was stripped of
his favor at court, unaccountably accused of high treason, tried, and
condemned to die; being reprieved, however, he was imprisoned in the
Tower of London many years, during which time he devoted himself to
writing and study. Receiving, at last, a commission to go and explore
the gold mines at Guiana, he embarked; but his design having been
betrayed to the Spaniards, he was defeated: and on his return to
England, in July, 1618, was arrested and beheaded, (by order of the
King, on his former attainder,) October 29; suffering his fate with
great magnanimity.
_High Treason_, in England, means an offence committed
against the sovereign. In the United States it consists in
levying war against the government, adhering to its enemies,
and giving them aid and comfort.
_Reprieved_, respited from sentence of death.
_Magnanimity_, greatness of mind, bravery.
What is Gum?
A mucilaginous juice, exuding from the bark of certain trees or
plants, drawn thence by the warmth of the sun in the form of a
glutinous matter; and afterwards by the same cause rendered firm and
tenacious. There are many different gums, named after the particular
tree or plant from which they are produced.
_Mucilaginous_, consisting of mucilage.
_Tenacious_, adhering closely.
What is the character of Gum?
Gum is capable of being dissolved in water, and forming with it a
viscid transparent fluid; but not in vinous spirits or oil; it burns
in the fire to a black coal, without melting or catching fire; and
does not dissolve in water at boiling heat. The name of _gum_ has been
inaccurately given to several species of gum-resins, which consist of
resin and various other substances, flowing from many kinds of trees,
and becoming hard by exposure to the air. These are soluble in dilute
alcohol. Gum is originally a milky liquor, having a greater quantity
of water mixed with its oily parts, and for that reason it dissolves
in either water or oil. Another sort is not oily, and therefore
dissolves in water only, as gum Arabic, the gum of the cherry-tree,
&c.
_Viscid_, thick, ropy.
_Vinous_, having the qualities of wine.
Are the last-mentioned sorts properly called Gums?
No, though commonly called gums, they are only dried mucilages, which
were nothing else than the mucilaginous lymph issuing from the vessels
of the tree, in the same manner as it does from mallows, comfrey, and
even from the cucumber; the vessels of which being cut across, yield a
lymph which is plainly mucilaginous, and if well dried, at length
becomes a kind of gum, or rather, a hardened mucilage.
_Lymph_, transparent fluid.
What is Gum Arabic?
The juice of a small tree of the Acacia tribe, growing in Egypt,
Arabia Petræa, Palestine, and in different parts of America.
Are there other plants or trees which produce Gum, besides those
already mentioned?
A great number, though not all commonly in use. The leaves of rhubarb,
the common plum, and even the sloe and the laurel, produce a clear,
tasteless gum; there are also a number of different gums, brought from
foreign countries, of great use in medicine and the arts. Most of the
Acacias produce gums, though the quality of all is not equally good.
What is Rhubarb?
A valuable root growing in China, Turkey, and Russian Tartary.
Quantities of it are imported from other parts of the world: that from
Turkey is esteemed the best. Rhubarb is also cultivated in our
gardens, and the stalks of the leaves are often used in tarts; but the
root, from the difference of climate, does not possess any medicinal
virtue.
CHAPTER XII.
SPECTACLES, MARINER'S COMPASS, BAROMETER, THERMOMETER, WATCHES,
CLOCKS, TELESCOPE, MICROSCOPE, GUNPOWDER, STEAM ENGINE, AND
ELECTRO-MAGNETIC TELEGRAPH.
When were Spectacles invented, and who was their inventor?
It is supposed that they were first known about the thirteenth
century, and invented by a monk of Pisa, in Italy, named Alexander de
Spina. Spectacles are composed of two circular pieces of glass set in
a frame.
What are these glasses called?
Lenses. They are either convex or concave, according to the kind of
sight requiring them. Old people, and those who can only see things at
a distance, from the flatness of the eye, which prevents the rays of
light converging so as to meet in the centre, require convex lenses.
People who can only distinguish objects when viewed closely, from the
eye being too convex, require concave lenses to counteract it by
spreading the rays, and thus rendering vision distinct.
_Convex_, rising outwardly in a circular form; opposite to
concave.
_Concave_, hollow; round, but hollow, as the inner curve of
an arch, &c.
_Converging_, tending to one point from different parts.
_Vision_, the faculty of seeing.
What is the Mariner's Compass?
A most useful and important instrument, by the aid of which the
navigator guides his ship on the sea, and steers his way to the place
of his destination. The inventor of the Mariner's Compass is not
known, nor the exact time of its introduction; it was employed in
Europe in navigation about the middle of the thirteenth century, and
has been in use more than five hundred years. The Chinese are said to
have been acquainted with it much earlier, but no reliance can be
placed on their dates. The power of the loadstone to attract iron was
known to the ancient Egyptians, but it was not applied to any
practical purpose.
_Navigator_, one who guides a ship.
_Steer_, to direct or guide a vessel in its course.
_Destination_, the place to which a person is bound.
_Practical_, capable of practice, not merely speculative.
What is the Loadstone?
An ore of iron which possesses the peculiar property of attracting
iron, namely, of drawing it in contact with its own mass, and holding
it firmly attached by its own power of attraction. A piece of
loadstone drawn several times along a needle, or a small piece of
iron, converts it into an artificial magnet; if this magnetized needle
is carefully balanced, it will turn round of itself, till its end
points towards the North. The magnetized needle also possesses the
power of attracting iron, and of communicating this power to another
piece of iron or steel, similar to that of the loadstone itself.
_Contact_, touch.
_Magnetized_, rendered magnetic.
Describe the Mariner's Compass.
The Mariner's Compass consists of a circular box, enclosing a
magnetized bar of steel, called the _needle_, carefully balanced on an
upright steel pivot, and having that end which points to the North
shaped like the head of an arrow; attached to this needle, and turning
with it, is a card on which are printed the divisions of North, South.
East, and West; called the points of the compass. By simply looking at
the position of the needle, the mariner can see the direction in which
his vessel is sailing, and regulate his helm accordingly.
_Helm_, the instrument by which a ship is steered,
consisting of a rudder and tiller.
What is a Barometer?
An instrument for measuring the weight of the atmosphere, which
enables us to determine the changes of the weather, the height of
mountains, &c. It consists of a glass tube hermetically sealed at one
end, filled with mercury, and inverted in a basin of mercury;
according to the weight of the atmosphere, this mercury rises or
falls.
How is the Hermetic seal formed?
By heating the edges of a vessel, till they are just ready to melt,
and then twisting them closely together with hot pincers, so that the
air may be totally excluded. The word is taken from Hermes, the Greek
name for Mercury, the heathen god of arts and learning, and the
supposed inventor of chemistry,[9] which is sometimes called the
hermetical art; or perhaps from Hermes, an ancient king of Egypt, who
was either its inventor, or excelled in it.
[Footnote 9: See Chapter XVIII., article Chemistry.]
What is Mercury?
Quicksilver, or mercury, is a white fluid metal, the heaviest except
platina and gold; it readily combines with nearly all other metals,
and is used in the manufacture of looking-glasses, barometers,
thermometers, &c.; in some of the arts, and in the preparation of
several powerful medicines. It is found in California, Hungary,
Sweden, Spain, China, and Peru. The quicksilver mine of Guança Velica,
in Peru, is one hundred and seventy fathoms in circumference, and four
hundred and eighty deep. In this profound abyss are seen streets,
squares, and a chapel, where religious worship is performed. The
quicksilver mines of Idria, a town of Lower Austria, have continually
been wrought for more than 300 years. The vapor which is continually
arising from the mercury is very hurtful to the miners, who seldom
survive many years.
_Abyss_, a gulf, a depth without bottom.
In what state is Mercury usually found?
Either native, or in the form of ore; it is often found mixed with
silver, but more frequently with sulphur in the form of sulphuret,
which is decomposed by distillation. Running mercury is found in
globules, in America, and is collected from the clefts of the rocks.
Mercury has the appearance of melted silver; it is neither ductile nor
malleable in this state; it is a substance so volatile, when heated,
that it may be evaporated like water; it is always seen in a fluid
state, even in temperate climates, as a very small portion of heat is
sufficient to preserve its fluidity. It is used to separate gold and
silver from the foreign matter found with those metals. Calomel, a
valuable medicine, and vermilion, a color, are both preparations of
mercury.
_Globules_, small particles of matter having the form of a
ball or sphere.
What is a Thermometer?
An instrument for measuring temperature. It consists of a fine glass
tube, terminated at one end in a bulb, usually filled with mercury,
which expands or contracts according to the degree of heat or cold. On
the scale of the Fahrenheit thermometer, the freezing point of water
is marked 32° and the boiling point at 212°. In both the Centigrade
and the Reaumur scales the freezing point is at 0, and the boiling
point at 100° in the Centigrade and at 80° in Reaumur's. The invention
of this instrument dates from about the close of the sixteenth
century; but it is not known by whom it was first brought into use.
_Terminated_, finished, ended.
When and by whom were Watches and Clocks invented?
Watches were invented about the year 1500, but who was the inventor is
disputed. They were, however, of little value as time-keepers, before
the application of the spiral spring as a regulator to the balance;
the glory of this excellent invention lies between Dr. Hooke and M.
Huygens; the English ascribing it to the former, the Dutch, French,
&c., to the latter. Some assert that pocket-watches were first made
about 1477, at Nuremberg, in Germany. The most ancient clock of which
we possess any certain account, was made in 1634 by Henry de Wycke, a
German artist; it was erected in a tower of the palace of Charles V.,
king of France. The pendulum was applied by Huygens, in 1656.
What is a Pendulum?
A weight so suspended from a fixed point that it may easily swing
backward and forward; its oscillations are always performed in equal
times, provided the length of the pendulum and the gravity remain the
same. It is said that the idea of employing the pendulum for the
measurement of time, was first conceived by Galileo, while a young
man, upon his observing attentively the regular oscillations of a lamp
suspended from the roof of a church in Pisa. It was not, however, till
the time of Huygens that a method was devised of continuing its
motions, and registering the number of its oscillations.
_Oscillation_, a swinging backward and forward.
_Gravity_, the tendency of a body toward the centre of the
earth.
_Registering_, recording.
[Illustration: CHARCOAL BURNING.]
[Illustration: GOLD MINERS WASHING ORE.]
To whom is the invention of Gunpowder ascribed?
Most authors suppose it was invented by Bartholdus Schwartz, a monk of
Goslar, a town of Brunswick, in Germany, about the year 1320; it
appears, however, that it was known much earlier in many parts of the
world, and that the famous Roger Bacon, who died in 1292, knew its
properties; but it is not certain that he was acquainted with its
application to fire-arms.
Who was Roger Bacon?
A learned Franciscan, born at Ilchester, England, in 1214. He studied
at Oxford, and afterwards became professor at that great University.
He was familiar with every branch of human knowledge, but was
especially distinguished for his extraordinary proficiency in the
natural sciences. To him we owe the invention of the telescope; that
of gunpowder is ascribed to him, as stated above, although we have no
evidence to show whether he discovered its ingredients himself, or
whether he derived the knowledge from some ancient manuscripts. Bacon
suffered some from the ignorance of the age in which he lived, many of
his experiments being looked upon as magic. He died at Oxford in the
year 1294.
What is understood by Magic?
Magic is a term used to signify an unlawful and wicked kind of
science, depending, as was pretended, on the assistance of superhuman
beings and of departed souls. The term was anciently applied to all
kinds of learning, and in particular to the science of the Magi or
Wise Men of Persia, from whom it was called magic. _Natural_ magic is
no more than the application of natural active causes to passive
things or subjects, to produce effects apparently supernatural.
_Supernatural_, beyond the powers of nature; miraculous.
Of what is Gunpowder composed?
Of saltpetre,[10] sulphur, and charcoal, mixed together and powdered;
its explosive force when fired, is owing to the instantaneous and
abundant liberation of gaseous matter by the intense heat resulting
from the action of the combustibles upon the saltpetre. It is not
known by whom it was first applied to the purposes of war, but it is
certain that it was used early in the fourteenth century. Cannons were
used at the battle of Cressy, in 1346; small guns, or muskets, were
introduced into the Spanish army in 1521.
[Footnote 10: See Chapter XIII.]
_Explosive_, bursting out with violence and noise.
_Liberation_, a setting at liberty.
Is not Gunpowder highly combustible?
So combustible is gunpowder, that a single spark of fire, lighting
upon any of it, will cause it to explode with immense force; and
instances have occurred, when any store or magazine of it has taken
fire, that have been attended with the most fatal effects. It is
useful to the miner and engineer as a ready means of overcoming the
obstacles which are presented in their search for mineral treasures,
and in procuring materials for building. From many passages in the
ancient authors, there is reason to suppose that gunpowder, or a
composition extremely like it, was known to them; but it does not
appear to have been in general use, and the invention of fire-arms is
comparatively modern. Dynamite, a recent invention, has a still
greater explosive force than gunpowder.
_Engineer_, one who works or directs an engine.
_Obstacles_, hinderances, obstructions.
What is Saltpetre?
A bitter kind of salt, called by the ancients nitre, but more commonly
among us saltpetre. It is composed of nitric acid and potassa.[11] It
is found in earthy substances; sometimes native or pure, in the form
of a shapeless salt. Vast quantities are found in several of the
marly earths of the East Indies, China, Persia, and also in South
America. In India it is found naturally crystallized, and forming thin
crusts upon the surface of the earth. It is especially abundant in the
United States, being found in immense quantities in the limestone
caves in the south-western States.
[Footnote 11: See Potash, Chapter VII., article Glass.]
What do you mean by _Marly_?
Consisting of marl, a kind of earth composed of different proportions
of clay and carbonate of lime; it is much used for manure. There are
several different-colored marls, each possessing different qualities.
The most common are the red and the white, though there are grey,
brown, blue, and yellow colored marls.
What is a Telescope?
An optical instrument, which serves for discovering and viewing
distant objects, either directly by glasses, or by reflection. The
invention of the telescope is one of the noblest and most useful of
which modern ages can boast, since by means of this instrument the
wonderful motions of the planets and fixed stars, and all the heavenly
bodies, are revealed to us. The honor of the invention is much
disputed; it is certain, however, that the celebrated Galileo was the
first who improved the telescope so as to answer astronomical
purposes. The name is formed from two Greek words, one signifying
_far_, the other _to observe_.
_Optical_, relating to Optics, the science of vision.
_Astronomical_, relating to Astronomy.
Who was Galileo?
A most eminent astronomer and mathematician, born at Florence, in
Italy. His inventions and discoveries in Astronomy, Geometry, and
Mechanics, contributed much to the advancement of those sciences. He
died in 1642.
_Astronomer_, one versed in Astronomy.
_Mathematician_, one versed in Mathematics; a science which
treats of magnitude and number.
What is Astronomy?[12]
That science which teaches the knowledge of the heavenly bodies, with
the nature and causes of their various phenomena.
[Footnote 12: See Chapter xviii.]
What is Geometry?
An ancient, perfect, and beautiful science, which treats of the
relations and properties of lines, surfaces, and solids.
What is meant by Mechanics?
The science which investigates the laws of forces and powers, and
their action on bodies, either directly or by machinery. When the term
_mechanic_ is applied to a _person_, it means one skilled in
mechanics, accustomed to manual labor.
_Investigate_, to search, to inquire into.
_Manual_, performed by the hand.
What is a Microscope?
An optical instrument, by means of which very minute objects are
represented exceedingly large, and viewed very distinctly according to
the laws of refraction or reflection. Nothing certain is known
respecting the inventor of microscopes, or the exact time of their
invention, but that they were first used in Germany, about 1621.
_Minute_, small, diminutive.
_Refraction_, a change in the direction of a ray of light,
when it passes through transparent substances of different
densities.
_Reflection_, a turning back of a ray of light after
striking upon any surface.
What is the Steam Engine?
A machine that derives its moving power from the force of the steam
produced from boiling water, which is very great, especially when, as
in the steam engine, it is confined within a limited compass: this
useful machine is one of the most valuable presents that the arts of
life have received from the philosopher, and is of the greatest
importance in working mines; supplying cities with water; in working
metals; in many mechanical arts; and in navigation. By the aid of
steam, vessels are propelled with greater swiftness than those which
are wholly dependent on the winds and tides; and thus trade is
facilitated, and we are enabled to communicate with distant lands in a
much shorter space of time than was formerly consumed. On land,
railroads are constructed, on which steam carriages run with
astonishing rapidity, so that a journey which by coach and horses
formerly required two or more days, may now be performed in four or
five hours.
_Mechanical_, belonging to Mechanics.
To whom are we indebted for its invention?
Its invention is by most writers ascribed to the Marquis of Worcester,
an Englishman, about 1663; but it does not appear that the inventor
could ever interest the public in favor of this, or his other
discoveries. The steam engine of Captain Savery, also an Englishman,
is the first of which any definite description has been preserved. It
was invented in 1698. Since that period it has been successively
improved by various persons, but it is to Mr. Watt and Mr. Boulton, of
England, that it is indebted for much of its present state of
perfection.
By whom was the Steam Engine first applied to the purposes of
Navigation?
By John Fitch, of Pennsylvania. From papers in the historical
collections of Pennsylvania, it appears that the first successful
experiments were made at Philadelphia, in 1785, three years before the
attempts at Falkirk, and on the Clyde, in Scotland. The boat made
several trips on the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, but owing to
repeated accidents to her machinery, and the want of funds and
competent mechanics for the necessary repairs, she was abandoned. In
1807, Robert Fulton, also of Pennsylvania, made his first experimental
trip on the Hudson River, with complete success. To this distinguished
and ingenious American justly belongs the honor of having brought
navigation by steam to a state of perfection. In 1819, the first
steamship crossed the Atlantic from Savannah to Liverpool; and in
1838, a regular communication by steamship was established between
Great Britain and the United States. Since that period, ocean
navigation by steam-vessels has made rapid progress, and, at the
present time, numbers of steamers connect our various seaports with
those of other nations, and with each other.
What is the Electro-Magnetic Telegraph?
An instrument, or apparatus, by means of which intelligence is
conveyed to any distance with the velocity of lightning. The electric
fluid, when an excess has accumulated in one place, always seeks to
transfer itself to another, until an equilibrium of its distribution
is fully restored. Consequently, when two places are connected by
means of a good conductor of electricity, as, for instance, the
telegraphic wire; the fluid generated by a galvanic battery, if the
communication be rendered complete, instantaneously traverses the
whole extent of the wire, and charges, at the distant station, an
electro-magnet; this attracts one end of a lever, and draws it
downward, while the other extremity is thrown up, and, by means of a
style, marks a slip of paper, which is steadily wound off from a
roller by the aid of clock-work. If the communication is immediately
broken, only one wave of electricity passes over, and a _dot_ is made
upon the paper; if kept up, a _line_ is marked. These dots and lines
are made to represent the letters of the alphabet, so that an operator
employed for the purpose can easily read the message which is
transmitted.--The Electro-Magnetic Telegraph was first introduced upon
a line between Baltimore and Washington, by Professor Morse, in 1844;
at the present time, it is in successful operation between nearly all
the important cities and towns of the United States and of Europe.
An _Electro-Magnet_ is a piece of soft iron, rendered
temporarily magnetic by being placed within a coil of wire
through which a current of electricity is passing.
CHAPTER XIII.
SOAP, CANDLES, TALLOW TREE, SPERMACETI, WAX, MAHOGANY, INDIAN
RUBBER OR CAOUTCHOUC, SPONGE, CORAL, LIME, CARBON, OXYGEN, NITROGEN,
GAS, HYDROGEN, CHALK, AND MARBLE.
Of what is Soap composed?
Of soda or potash, and various oily substances; it is so useful for
domestic and other purposes, that it may be regarded as one of the
necessaries of life; immense quantities of it are consumed in all
civilized countries. Soft soap is generally made of a lye of
wood-ashes and quicklime, boiled up with tallow or oil; common
household soap of soda and tallow, or of potash and tallow; when
potash is used, a large portion of common salt, which contains soda,
is added to harden it. The finest white soaps are made of olive oil
and a lye consisting of soda and quicklime; perfumes are sometimes
added, or various coloring matters stirred in to give the soap a
variegated appearance. The ancient Greeks and Hebrews appear to have
been acquainted with the art of making soap, or a composition very
similar to it; and also the ancient Gauls and Germans. A soap-boiler's
shop, with soap in it, was found in the city of Pompeii, in Italy,
which was overwhelmed by an eruption of Mount Vesuvius, A.D. 79.
What is Soda?
Soda, or barilla, is obtained from the ashes of marine plants, and by
the decomposition of common salt; its great depository is the ocean,
soda being the basis of salt. The marine plants from which the soda is
obtained, are endowed with the property of decomposing the sea-salt
which they imbibe, and of absorbing the soda which it contains. It is
found native in Egypt, and is there called _natron_; a name similar to
that which it bore among the Jews and Greeks.
_Depository_, store-house, place where anything is lodged.
_Imbibe_, to drink in, to absorb.
Of what are Candles made?
Of Tallow, which means animal fat melted and clarified, that is,
cleansed or purified from filth. Tallow is procured from many animals,
but the most esteemed, and the most used, is that made from oxen,
sheep, swine, goats, deer, bears, &c.; some of which tallows or fats
are used in medicine, some in making soap, and dressing leather;
others in the manufacture of candles, &c. For the last-mentioned
article, that of sheep and oxen is most used; candles of a better sort
are likewise made of wax and spermaceti. Candles are kept burning by
means of a wick of cotton or rush, placed in the centre of the tallow,
which is moulded into a cylindrical form.
_Cylindrical_, having the form of a cylinder.
Is there not a tree which yields a vegetable Tallow?
Yes; China possesses a tree producing a substance like our tallow, of
which the Chinese make their candles; this tallow is extracted from
the stone of the fruit, the tallow being a white pulp which surrounds
it. In America, likewise, there is a shrub, a native of the temperate
parts, especially towards the sea-side, the seeds of which contain a
waxy substance used for the same purpose, and which is extracted by
boiling; this shrub is a species of myrtle, and does not attain to any
great size.
_Extracted_, drawn from.
What is Spermaceti?
A whitish, flaky, unctuous substance, prepared from an oil of the same
name, drawn from a particular kind of whale, distinguished from the
common whale by having teeth, and a hunch on its back.
_Flaky_, having the nature of flakes.
What is Wax?
A soft, yellow, concrete matter, collected from vegetables by the
bee, of which this industrious and useful insect constructs its cell.
Wax forms a considerable article of trade; it is of two kinds, the
yellow and the white; the yellow is the native wax as it is taken from
the hive, and the white is the same washed, purified, and exposed to
the air.
_Concrete_, grown together, solid.
What Tree produces the beautiful and well-known wood so much used in
making the various articles of household furniture?
The Mahogany Tree, growing in America, and the East and West Indies;
it frequently grows in the crevices of rocks, and other places of the
same description. This wood was not used for making furniture till
near the end of the seventeenth century. A London physician had a
brother, the captain of a West India ship, who, on his return to
England, having on board several logs of mahogany for the purpose of
ballast, made him a present of the wood, he being engaged in a
building project; his carpenter, however, threw it aside, observing
that it was too hard to be wrought. Some time after, the lady of the
physician being in want of a box to hold candles, the cabinet-maker
was directed to make it of this wood; he also made the same objection,
and declared that it spoiled his tools. Being urged, however, to make
another trial, he at length succeeded; when the box was polished, the
beautiful color of the wood was so novel, that it became an object of
great curiosity. Before this time, mahogany had been used partially in
the West Indies for ship-building, but this new discovery of its
beauty soon brought it into general use for making furniture.
_Crevice_, a rent, a crack.
_Ballast_, the heavy matter placed in the hold of a vessel
to keep it steady.
What is India Rubber or Caoutchouc?
An elastic, resinous substance, produced from a tree, growing
abundantly at Cayenne, Quito, and other parts of South America; and
also in some parts of the Indies. The tree which produces it is
large, straight, and about sixty feet high. There is, however, a small
species found in Sumatra and Java, and some of the neighboring
islands.
How is the Caoutchouc obtained from the Tree?
By making incisions in the trunk of the tree, from which the fluid
resin issues in great abundance, appearing of a milky whiteness at
first, but gradually becoming of a dark reddish color, soft and
elastic to the touch.
To what use is this substance put?
The Indians make of it boots, shoes, bottles, flambeaux, and a species
of cloth. Amongst us it is combined with sulphur, forming the
vulcanized rubber of commerce, which is used for many purposes. A
greater proportion of sulphur, produces vulcanite, a hard black
substance, resembling jet.
_Flambeaux_, torches burnt to give light.
What is Sponge?
A marine substance, found adhering to rocks and shells under the
sea-water, or on the sides of rocks near the shore. Sponge was
formerly imagined by some naturalists to be a vegetable production; by
others, a mineral, or a collection of sea-mud, but it has since been
discovered to be the fabric and habitation of a species of worm, or
polypus.
What do you mean by Polypus?
A species of animals called Zoophytes, by which are meant beings
having such an admixture of the characteristics of both plants and
animals, as to render it difficult to decide to which division they
properly belong. They are animal in substance, possessed indeed of a
stomach, but without the other animal characteristics of
blood-vessels, bones, or organs of sense; these creatures live chiefly
in water, and are mostly incapable of motion: they increase by buds or
excrescences from the parent zoophyte, and if cut off will grow again
and multiply; each part becoming a perfect animal. Myriads of the
different species of zoophytes reside in small cells of coral, sponge,
&c., or in forms like plants, and multiply in such numbers as to
create rocks and whole islands in many seas, by their untiring
industry. Polypus signifies having many feet, or roots; it is derived
from the Greek.
_Myriads_, countless numbers.
Whence are the best and greatest number of Sponges brought?
From the Mediterranean, especially from Nicaria, an island near the
coast of Asia: the collection of sponges forms, in some of these
islands, the principal support of their inhabitants. They are procured
by diving under water, an exercise in which both men, women, and
children are skilled from their earliest years. The fine, small
sponges are esteemed the best, and usually come from Constantinople;
the larger and coarser sorts are brought from Tunis and Algiers, on
the coast of Africa. Sponge is very useful in the arts, as well as for
domestic purposes.
What is Coral?
A substance which, like sponge, was considered as a vegetable
production, until about the year 1720, when a French gentleman of
Marseilles commenced (and continued for thirty years,) a series of
observations, and ascertained that the coral was a living animal of
the Polypus tribe. The general name of zoophytes, or plant animals,
has since been applied to them. These animals are furnished with
minute glands, secreting a milky juice; this juice, when exuded from
the animal, becomes fixed and hard.
_Series_, a course or continued succession.
_Glands_, vessels.
_Exuded_, from exude, to flow out.
Is this substance considered by naturalists as the habitation of the
Insect?
Not merely as the habitation, but as a part of the animal itself, in
the same manner that the shell of a snail or an oyster is of those
animals, and without which they cannot long exist. By means of this
juice or secretion, the coral insects, at a vast but unknown depth
below the surface of the sea, attach themselves to the points and
ridges of rocks, which form the bottom of the ocean; upon which
foundation the little architects labor, building up, by the aid of the
above-mentioned secretion, pile upon pile of their rocky habitations,
until at length the work rises above the sea, and is continued to such
a height as to leave it almost dry, when the insects leave building on
that part, and begin afresh in another direction under the water. Huge
masses of rocky substances are thus raised by this wonderful little
insect, capable of resisting the tremendous power of the ocean when
agitated to the highest pitch by winds or tempests.
_Architect_, one who builds.
How do these Coral Rocks become Islands?
After the formation of this solid, rocky base, sea-shells, fragments
of coral, and sea-sand, thrown up by each returning tide, are broken
and mixed together by the action of the waves; these, in time, become
a sort of stone, and thus raise the surface higher and higher;
meanwhile, the ever-active surf continues to throw up the shells of
marine animals and other substances, which fill up the crevices
between the stones; the undisturbed sand on its surface offers to the
seeds of trees and plants cast upon it by the waves, a soil upon which
they rapidly grow and overshadow the dazzling whiteness of the
new-formed land. Trunks of trees, washed into the sea by the rivers
from other countries and islands, here find a resting-place, and with
these come some small animals, chiefly of the lizard and insect tribe.
Even before the trees form a wood, the sea-birds nestle among their
branches, and the stray land-bird soon takes refuge in the bushes. At
last, man arrives and builds his hut upon the fruitful soil formed by
the corruption of the vegetation, and calls himself lord and master of
this new creation.
_Surf_, the white spray or froth of the sea waves.
Where is the Coral Insect found?
In nearly all great seas; but particularly in the Mediterranean, where
it produces Corallines of the most beautiful forms and colors: it is
in the Pacific Ocean, however, where these tiny workmen are effecting
those mighty changes, which exceed the most wonderful works of man.
What is that part of the Pacific called, where the Coral Rocks are
most abundant?
The Coral Sea, from the number of coral reefs and sunken islands, with
which it abounds; it includes a region of many miles in extent, the
whole of which is studded with numberless reefs, rocks, islands, and
columns of coral, continually joining and advancing towards each
other. All navigators who have visited these seas, state that no
charts or maps are of any service after a few years, owing to the
number of fresh rocks and reefs which are continually rising to the
surface. The wonderful instinct of these animals leads them to
continue working without ceasing, until their labors are finished, or
their lives extinct.
_Reef_, a chain or line of rocks lying near the surface of
the water.
_Extinct_, at an end, dead.
What are the names of the principal islands of Coral formation?
The New Hebrides, the Friendly Isles, the Navigator's Isles, the
Society Islands, the Marquesas, the Gambier group, and others. These
groups are separated from each other by channels or seas, wider than
those which divide the individual islands which form the respective
groups; but all these waters abound with shoals and minor islets,
which point out the existence of a common base, and show that the work
by which they will afterwards be united above the level of the sea is
continually going forward.
_Shoals_, shallows; places where the water is of little
depth.
_Minor_, less, smaller than others.
_Existence_, being.
What is a singular characteristic of the Coral Islands?
On all of them a plentiful supply of sweet and fresh water may be
obtained by digging three or four feet into the coral; and even within
one yard of high-water mark such a supply is to be found. They are
mostly covered with a deep rich soil, and well wooded with trees and
evergreens of different kinds. These islands vary in extent, as well
as in the degree of finish to which they have arrived; some of the
largest being about 30 miles in diameter, and the smallest something
less than a mile;--all of various shapes, and all formed of living
coral.
_Diameter_, a straight line through the middle of a circle.
Is Coral put to any use by man?
White Coral, which is nowhere so abundant as about the shores of
Ceylon, and others of the neighboring Indian coasts, is employed as
lime by the inhabitants of that part of the world, for building
houses, &c., by burning it after the manner of our lime. This coral
lies in vast banks, which are uncovered at low water. Coral,
particularly the beautiful red sort, is likewise made into various
ornaments, as necklaces, &c.
Of what is our Lime composed?
Of a useful earth, which absorbs moisture and carbonic acid, and
exists as limestone, or in marble and chalk, which, when burnt, become
lime: in its native state it is called carbonate of lime, and is burnt
to disengage the carbonic acid; when made into a paste, with one part
water and three parts lime,[13] and mixed with some other mineral or
metallic substances, it forms plastic cements and mortars; and
afterwards, imbibing carbonic acid from the atmosphere, it becomes
again carbonate of lime, as hard as at first; and hence its use in
building.
[Footnote 13: See Chapter XVI., article Lime.]
_Plastic_, yielding, capable of being spread out or moulded.
What do you mean by Carbon?
A simple substance, whose most common form is purified charcoal: it
is, in fact, the base of charcoal, divested of all impurities;
combined with oxygen, it forms _carbonic acid_ gas, formerly called
fixed air. It is diffused through all animal and vegetable bodies; and
may be obtained by exposing them to a red heat. In its pure,
crystallized state, it constitutes the diamond, and as graphite, is
used in making the so-called lead-pencils.[14]
[Footnote 14: See Chapter XIV., article Diamond.]
What is Oxygen?
Air, mentioned in the first chapter of this work as the gaseous
substance which composes the atmosphere, is formed by a mixture of two
distinct elements, one called Nitrogen, or Azote, the other Oxygen.
Oxygen is, therefore, an element or simple substance diffused
generally through nature, and its different combinations are essential
to animal life and combustion. It is, in fact, the most active agent
in nature, and the principle of acidity and combustion. So wholesome
and necessary is oxygen to life, that it is often called vital air.
_Agent_, an actor; a person or thing possessing the faculty
of action.
_Essential_, necessary.
What are the properties of Nitrogen or Azote?
Nitrogen is a substance also generally diffused through nature, and
particularly in animal bodies, and causes great changes in those
absorbing or exposed to it. This gas, combined with oxygen and
hydrogen, produces neither light, heat, nor combustion, but serves to
dilute the others: of itself, it is hurtful to animal life. Nitrogen
makes the principal part of the salt we call _nitre_.
What is meant by Combustion?
The decomposition of bodies by the action of fire; the union of
combustible bodies with the oxygen of the atmosphere. The greater
access the air has to a burning body, the more rapid and complete is
the process.
_Combustible_, capable of taking fire.
_Access_, the means or liberty of approach to anything.
Are all bodies equally combustible?
No; some are more so than others, and burn with a bright flame; as
wood, dry vegetables, resins, oils, fats, &c.; others with difficulty,
and without any sensible flame, as soot, coal, the ashes of plants,
&c. There are bodies, also, which are incombustible--that is,
incapable of taking fire, as some alkalies, earths, &c.
What is Caloric?
Caloric is that invisible agent which produces the sensation of heat.
It exists in all bodies; it is a force we are ever in want of, and
thus it is hid in everything around us, and penetrates all matter,
however different may be its nature or properties.
What is meant by Gas?
All highly elastic fluids are called gases. Some are salutary, but
many extremely noxious, especially such as those arising from the
putrefaction of animal bodies; the burning of charcoal; corrupted air
at the bottom of mines, cellars, &c. The inflammable gas, which lights
our streets, churches, shops, &c., is procured chiefly from coal,
burnt in furnaces for the purpose the gas being passed through metal
pipes, conveyed underground to the places where the light is required:
escaping at the orifice prepared for it, it is lighted when wanted,
and burns with, a brilliant flame. This gas consists of hydrogen and
carbon; and the oxygen of the air, combined with the hydrogen, causes
light as long as hydrogen and oxygen exist and combine.
_Salutary_, wholesome, healthful.
_Noxious_, hurtful, unwholesome.
_Putrefaction_, decay.
_Orifice_, opening, hole.
[Illustration: DIAMOND CUTTING AND POLISHING.]
What is Hydrogen?
One of the most abundant principles in nature; one part of it, and
eight of oxygen, form water. It is only met with in a gaseous form;
it is also very inflammable, and is the gas called the fire-damp, so
often fatal to miners; it is the chief constituent of oils, fats,
spirits, &c.; and is produced by the decomposition of water.
_Constituent_, that which forms an essential part of
anything.
What is Chalk?
A white fossil substance, by some reckoned a stone, but of a friable
kind, which cannot, therefore, be polished as marble; by others, more
properly ranked among the earths. It is of two sorts, one a hard dry
chalk, used for making lime; the other a soft, unctuous kind, used in
manuring land, &c. Chalk always contains quantities of flint-stone,
and the fossil remains of shells, coral, animal bones, marine plants,
&c.; from which circumstance there can be no doubt that _chalk is the
deposited mud of a former ocean_. The chemical name of chalk is
carbonate of lime. It effervesces strongly with an acid.
_Effervesce_, to froth or foam up.
_Deposited_, placed on anything.
Where is Chalk found?
In large beds or strata in the earth. Chalk, on account of its
abundance in England, forms an important feature in the scenery and
geology of that country; it causes the whiteness of its sea-cliffs.
Scotland and Wales are entirely without chalk. The white chalk is
found, with interruptions, over a space above eleven hundred miles
long, extending from the north of Ireland, through England, France,
Belgium, Germany, Poland, and Southern Russia, to the Crimea, with a
breadth of more than eight hundred miles. The Island of Crete, now
called Candia, situated in the Mediterranean, was formerly noted for
its chalk. This substance is very useful in many of the arts and
manufactures.
Where is the Crimea?
The peninsula of the Crimea is a part of Russia, lying on the Black
Sea, by which it is bounded on the west and south.
Are there any other kinds of this earth besides the common white
chalk?
Yes; there are various kinds of chalk, distinguished by their
different colors, as white, black, red, &c., found in various parts of
the world, of great use to the painter, both in oil and water colors,
and for drawing on paper, &c.
What is Marble?
A kind of stone remarkable for its hardness and firm grain, and for
being susceptible of the finest polish. It is dug in great masses from
pits or quarries; and is much used in ornamental buildings, and for
statues, altars, tombs, chimney-pieces, &c. The word is derived from
the French _marbre_, marble. Marble is supposed to be formed, deep
within the bowels of the earth, from a loose and porous carbonate of
lime, subjected to enormous heat and pressure.
_Susceptible_, easily admitting anything additional.
_Porous_, full of holes, or interstices.
Are there different sorts of this Stone?
Marbles are of many different kinds, usually named either from their
color or country; some of one simple color, as white, or black; others
streaked or variegated with different colors. They are classified as
ancient and modern: the ancient are those found in quarries now lost
or inaccessible to us, and of which there are only some wrought pieces
remaining;--the modern, those from quarries still open, and out of
which blocks of marble continue to be taken.
In what countries is Marble found?
The United States, Great Britain, France, Spain, Italy, Africa, Egypt,
and many other countries, produce marbles of different colors and
qualities; some more beautiful, valuable, and more highly esteemed
than others, as those of Egypt, Italy, &c. Those, also, of different
places in the same country frequently differ from each other in
quality and appearance Of the European marbles, that of Italy is the
most valuable.
What kind appears to have been held in the greatest esteem by the
ancients?
A beautiful white marble, called the Parian; of which the Grecian
statues were mostly made. By some, it is supposed to have taken its
name from the Isle of Paros, in the Mediterranean; but by others from
Parius, a famous statuary, who made it celebrated by cutting in it a
statue of Venus. Parian marble is often mentioned by ancient authors.
_Statues_, figures of men, animals, &c., cut in stone or
marble.
_Statuary_, one who makes statues.
Who was Venus?
The goddess of love and beauty, who was an object of adoration in the
idolatrous ages, when men ignorantly knelt down and worshipped stocks
and stones, which their own hands had fashioned after the likeness of
things on the earth, or imaginary creations of their fancy;--or,
again, the sun, moon, and stars, instead of the one and only true God.
In those times, every nation had its peculiar deities, to whom were
paid divine rites and honors, and to whose names costly temples were
dedicated: these deities were divided into two classes, superior and
inferior. Venus was one of the Grecian goddesses, supposed by them to
have sprung from the froth of the sea. Kings and celebrated warriors,
and sages too, after death, frequently received divine honors; as
Confucius, the founder of the Chinese empire, who, after death, was
worshipped by that people as a god. Romulus, the first king of Rome,
likewise, was thus adored by the Romans; and many similar instances of
the same species of idolatry amongst other nations might be recorded.
_Deities_, fabulous gods or goddesses.
_Idolatrous_, given to the worship of idols.
_Superior_, higher in rank.
_Inferior_, of a lower rank.
_Sage_, a wise man.
CHAPTER XIV.
GOLD, SILVER, LEAD, TIN, PLATINA, SULPHUR, GEMS OR PRECIOUS
STONES, AS DIAMONDS, RUBIES, EMERALDS, TURQUOIS, PEARLS,
MOTHER-OR-PEARLS, AND IVORY.
What is Gold?
The purest and most precious of metals: it is sometimes found in solid
masses, as in California, Peru, Hungary, &c.; in a shape resembling
the branches of plants; in thin plates covering other bodies, as in
Siberia; sometimes in a crystal form. It, however, generally occurs in
a metallic state, and most commonly in the form of grains.
What is it called when found in a perfect metallic form?
Native gold: it is, however, seldom met with perfectly pure, being
frequently alloyed with silver, copper, iron, or platina; sometimes
concealed in other minerals; from which, if sufficiently abundant, it
is extracted by art.
Where and in what manner is Gold generally found?
All parts of the earth afford gold; though with great difference in
point of purity and abundance. It is chiefly obtained from mines. Many
rivers contain gold in their sands, especially those of California and
Guinea. Gold mines are of rare occurrence in Europe, but the metal is
found in some of its rivers; among its mines, those of Upper Hungary
are the most considerable. China and Japan are rich in this metal;
many parts of Asia also possess it. Australia produces quantities of
the metal. It is also found in the eastern parts and interior of
Africa, where gold dust is collected in great quantities from earth
deposited by the rivers. But it is in America that gold is found in
the greatest abundance, particularly in the State of California, and
in some parts of South America, as Brazil, Peru, Chili, &c.
_Guinea_, a country of Western Africa.
What are the uses of Gold?
It is used for money, jewelry, plate, &c. It is also employed in
various ways in the arts.
What is the character of Gold?
Gold is so ductile and malleable, that an ounce of it may be drawn
into a thread of 73 leagues in length; or beaten into 160 leaves of 9
inches square, and thin enough to be carried away by the slightest
wind. It readily assumes any form that human art can bestow upon it:
its color is unalterable, and the beautiful polish of which it is
susceptible, renders it the best of all metals for ornamental
purposes. It is indestructible by air, water, or fire. Gold is the
heaviest of all metals, except platina; it is neither very elastic,
nor very hard.
_League_, a measure of length containing three miles.
_Indestructible_, incapable of being destroyed.
Is not the use of Gold quite ancient?
Yes; it appears to have been very early known to the inhabitants of
the world. In the 13th Chapter of Genesis, Abram is spoken of as very
rich in silver and gold; and in the 2d Chapter of the same book, the
"land of Hevilath" (now in the eastern part of Arabia Felix,) is
pointed out as having gold. Arabia was famed for the fineness and
quality of its gold. In the time of Solomon, the gold of Ophir seems
to have been much esteemed, as it is recorded that the gold used in
the building of the Temple was brought from that place by the
merchant-vessels of Hiram, King of Tyre. Ophir is supposed to have
been situated somewhere in the East Indies.
What is Silver?
A beautiful white shining metal, next to gold in value, and, like that
precious substance, of great antiquity. It is found in Sweden, Norway,
and the polar latitudes: when it occurs in hot climates, it is
generally amidst mountains, covered with perpetual snow.
_Latitude_, breadth, width; in Geography, the distance of a
place in degrees, north or south, from the Equator.
Where are the richest Silver Mines found?
In South America, especially among the Andes; the mines of Mexico, and
those of Nevada, also, are rich in this metal. The richest and most
important silver mines in Europe are those of Königsberg, in Norway,
and of Andalusia, in Spain. With the exception of gold, silver is the
most ductile of all metals: a single grain may be extended into a
plate 126 inches long, and half an inch broad. It is capable of still
further extension, but its tenacity is inferior even to that of iron
or copper. A silver wire one-tenth of an inch thick will scarcely bear
a weight of 290 pounds, whilst a gold wire of the same thickness will
support nearly double that weight. Like some other metals, it is
unalterable by air or moisture, but by an intense heat may be
volatilized, being sometimes found in the soot of chimneys where large
quantities are melted.
_Volatilized_, made to fly off by evaporation.
In what state is Silver usually found?
It is rarely found in a state of purity, being generally mixed with
other metals, as gold, lead, &c. Masses of native silver are of no
determinate form; being found sometimes in small branches, sometimes
in threads, or very frequently in leaves, as in the Siberian mines.
Native, or pure silver is chiefly found in the mines of Potosi. Silver
was used as money in commerce 1100 years before the foundation of
Rome.
_Commerce_, trade of one nation with another, or different
persons, &c. with each other.
What is Tin?
A white metal, softer than any other excepting lead, more elastic, and
more sonorous. Though tin is the lightest of all metals, its ore is,
when rich, the heaviest of all metallic ores. It has both smell and
taste; is less ductile than some harder metals, though it may be
beaten into ve
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